Electrical Contacts

Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Introduction Editor Contributors Contact Interface Conduction Electrical Contact Resistance: Fundamental Principles Roland S. Timsit Introduction Electrical Constriction Resistance Effect of Surface Films on Constriction and Contact Resistance Temperature of an Electrically Heated a-Spot Mechanics of a-Spot Formation Breakdown of Classical Electrical Contact Theory in Small Contact Spots Constriction Resistance at High Frequencies Summary Acknowledgements References Introduction to Contact Tarnishing and Corrosion Paul G. Slade Introduction Corrosion Rates Corrosion Gases Types of Corrosion Gas Concentrations in the Atmosphere Measurements Mixed Flow Gas Laboratory Testing Electronic Connectors Power Connectors Other Considerations Acknowledgements References Gas Corrosion William H. Abbott and Paul G. Slade Introduction The Field Environments for Electrical Contacts Laboratory Accelerated Testing Lubrication and Inhibition of Corrosion Acknowledgement References Effect of Dust Contamination on Electrical Contacts Ji Gao Zhang Introduction Dusty Environment and Dust Composition The Characteristics of Dust Particles Application Conditions in Dusty Environment Theoretical Analysis of Connector Contact Failure due to the Dust Future Work References Nonarcing Contacts Power Connectors Milenko Braunovic Introduction Types of Power Connectors Properties of Conductor and Connector Materials Parameters Affecting Performance of Power Connections Palliative Measures Connector Degradation Prognostic Models Shape-Memory Alloys (SMA) Metal Foam Materials Installation of Power Connections Accelerated Current-Cycling Tests (Standards) References Low-Power Commercial, Automotive, and Appliance Connections Anthony Lee and George Drew Introduction Connectors Contact Terminals Degradation of Connector Contact Automotive Connector Contacts Summary References Tribology of Electronic Connectors: Contact Sliding Wear, Fretting, and Lubrication Roland S. Timsit and Morton Antler Introduction Sliding Wear Fretting Lubrication References Materials, Coatings, and Platings Morton Antler and Paul G. Slade Introduction Metallic Finishes Properties Related to Porosity Metallurgical and Structural Properties Physical and Mechanical Properties Acknowledgement References The Electric Arc and Switching Device Technology The Arc and Interruption Paul G. Slade Introduction The Fourth State of Matter Establishing an Arc The Formation of the Electric Arc The Arc in Air at Atmospheric Pressure The Arc in Vacuum Arc Interruption Acknowledgements References The Consequences of Arcing Paul G. Slade Introduction Arcing Time Arc Erosion of Electrical Contacts Blow-Off Force Contact Welding Changes in the Contact Surface as a Result of Arcing Acknowledgements References Reed Switches Kunio Hinohara Principles and Design of the Reed Switch Recommended Contact Plating Contact Surface Degradation and Countermeasures Applications of Reed Switches References Low Current and High Frequency Miniature Switches: Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) Metal Contact Switches Benjamin F. Toler, Ronald A. Coutu, Jr., and John W. McBride Introduction Micro-Contact Resistance Modeling Contact Materials for Performance and Reliability Failure Modes and Reliability Conclusion References Low Current Switching John W. McBride Introduction and Device Classification Device Types Design Parameters for Static Switching Contacts Mechanical Design Parameters The Measurement of Contact Wear and Contact Dynamics Electrical Characteristics of Low-Current Switching Devices at Opening Electrical Characteristics of Low-Current Switching Devices at Closure Summary Acknowledgements References Medium to High Current Switching: Low Voltage Contractors and Circuit Breakers, and Vacuum Interrupters Manfred Lindmayer General Aspects of Switching in Air Contacts for Switching in Air Low-Voltage Contactors Low-Voltage Circuit-Breakers and Miniature Circuit-Breakers Simulations of Low-Voltage Switching Devices Vacuum Interrupters References Arc Faults and Electrical Safety John J. Shea Introduction Arc Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs) Arcing Faults Glowing Connections Arcing Fault Properties Other Types of Arcing Faults Conclusions References Arcing Contact Materials Arcing Contact Materials Gerald J. Witter Introduction Silver Metal Oxides Silver Refractory Metals Vacuum Interrupter Materials Tungsten Contacts Non-Noble Silver Alloys Silver-Nickel Contact Materials Silver Alloys and Noble Metals Silver-Graphite Contact Materials Conclusion Acknowledgements References Contact Design and Attachment Gerald J. Witter and Guenther Horn Introduction Staked Contact Assembly Designs Welded Contact Assembly Designs Brazed Contact Assembly Designs Clad Metals, Inlay, and Edge Lay Contact Alloys for Non-Arcing Separable Contacts Acknowledgements References Electrical Contact Material Testing Design and Measurement Gerald J. Witter and Werner Rieder Objectives Device Testing and Model Switch Testing Electrical Contact Testing Variables Electrical Testing Result Types and Measurement Methods References Arc Interactions with Contaminants Gerald J. Witter and Werner Rieder Introduction Organic Contamination and Activation Mineral Particulate Contamination of Arcing Contacts Silicone Contamination of Arcing Contacts Lubricants with Refractory Fillers Oxidation of Contact Materials Resistance Effects from Long Arcs Acknowledgements References Sliding Electrical Contacts Sliding Electrical Contacts (Graphitic Type Lubrication) Kiochiro Sawa and Erle I. Shobert II Introduction Mechanical Aspects Chemical Aspects Electrical Effects Thermal Effects Brush Wear Brush Materials and Abrasion Summary References Illustrative Modern Brush Applications Wilferd E. Yohe and William A. Nystrom Introduction Brush Materials Brush Applications Sliding Contacts for Instrumentation and Control Glenn Dorsey and Jax Glossbrenner Introduction Sliding Contact-The Micro Perspective Electrical Performance Micro-Environment of Contact Region Macro Sliding Contact Materials for Sliding Contacts Friction and Wear Characteristics Contact Parameters and Sliding-Contact Assemblies Future Summary Acknowledgements References Metal Fiber Brushes Glenn Dorsey and Doris Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf Introduction Sliding Wear of Multi-Fiber Brushes Surface Films, Friction, and Materials Properties Electrical Contact Brush Dynamics Future Summary Acknowledgements References Contact Data Useful Electric Contact Information Paul G. Slade Introduction Notes to the Tables References Author Index Subject Index