Tracing Roman lead sources using lead isotope analyses in conjunction with archaeological and epigraphic evidence—a case study from Augustan/Tiberian Germania

In antiquity, lead played an important role both for the military and general public. Building construction, in particular, consumed large amounts of this metal. Nevertheless, the supply sources for lead during the Roman Imperial period have not been satisfactorily accounted for. The following paper aims to clarify the provenance of lead artefacts from Roman military fortresses and camps located to the east of the river Rhine in Germany as well as Roman lead ingots whose inscriptions point to a production in Germania. The time frame of both artefact types is Augustan–Tiberian. In view of the archaeological and historical findings pertaining to this period in Roman history, it could be shown, using lead isotope data, that not only were the military bases on the Rhine supplied apparently with lead from the nonferrous ore deposits in the northern Rhine Massif but also other parts of the empire including, most probably, ancient Rome itself.