Raman microscopy and x-ray fluorescence analysis of pigments on medieval and Renaissance Italian manuscript cuttings

Italian medieval and Renaissance manuscript cuttings and miniatures from the Victoria and Albert Museum were analyzed by Raman microscopy to compile a database of pigments used in different periods and different Italian regions. The palette identified in most manuscripts and cuttings was found to include lead white, gypsum, azurite, lazurite, indigo, malachite, vermilion, red lead, lead tin yellow (I), goethite, carbon, and iron gall ink. A few of the miniatures, such as the historiated capital "M" painted by Gerolamo da Cremona and the Petrarca manuscript by Bartolomeo Sanvito, are of exceptional quality and were analyzed extensively; some contained unusual materials. The widespread usage of iron oxides such as goethite and hematite as minor components of mixtures with azurite is particularly notable. The use of a needle-shaped form of iron gall ink as a pigment rather than a writing material was established by both Raman microscopy and x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy for the Madonna and Child by Franco de' Russi.