The Anti-inflammatory Sesquiterpene Lactone Helenalin Inhibits the Transcription Factor NF-κB by Directly Targeting p65

The sesquiterpene lactone helenalin is a potent anti-inflammatory drug whose molecular mechanism of action remains unclear despite numerous investigations. We have previously shown that helenalin and other sesquiterpene lactones selectively inhibit activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB, a central mediator of the human immune response. These drugs must target a central step in NF-kappaB pathway, since they inhibit NF-kappaB induction by four different stimuli. It has previously been reported that sesquiterpene lactones exert their effect by inhibiting degradation of IkappaB, the inhibitory subunit of NF-kappaB. These data contradicted our report that IkappaB is not detectable in helenalin-treated, ocadaic acid-stimulated cells. Here we use confocal laser scanning microscopy to demonstrate the presence of IkappaB-released, nuclear NF-kappaB in helenalin-treated, tumor necrosis factor-alpha stimulated cells. These data show that neither IkappaB degradation nor NF-kappaB nuclear translocation are inhibited by helenalin. Rather, we provide evidence that helenalin selectively alkylates the p65 subunit of NF-kappaB. This sesquiterpene lactone is the first anti-inflammatory agent shown to exert its effect by directly modifying NF-kappaB.