Obedient children and reckless rebels: Jabotinsky's youth politics and the case for authoritarian leadership, 1931–1933

AbstractThis article traces the pivotal role that ideas about “youth” and “generationhood” played in Vladimir Jabotinsky's political strategy as leader of the Union of Revisionist Zionists and its youth movement, Brit Yosef Trumpeldor (Betar). During the leadership struggle within the movement between 1931 and 1933, Jabotinsky believed that he could draw upon debates sweeping across Europe about the nature of youth, their role in politics, and the challenges of “generational conflict” in order to convince his followers that his increasingly authoritarian behavior was the only mode of leadership available to Zionist leaders in the 1930s. The article demonstrates that Jabotinsky's deliberately ambiguous and provocative constructions of “youth” and “generationhood” within the movement's party literature and in articles addressed to the Polish Jewish public, as well as the innovative ways in which he delimited “youth” from “adult” in his movement's regulations, allowed him to further embrace authoritarian measures within the movement without publicly abandoning his claim to be a firm proponent of democracy.Keywords:: Jabotinskyyouth movementsBetarRevisionismauthoritarianism AcknowledgementsThe author wishes to thank the Young Scholars Forum of the Chaim Weizmann Institute for the Study of Zionism and Israel at Tel Aviv University for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this essay.Notes 1. See “Tsum fashistishn onfal” [On the fascist assault], Bafrayung arbeter-shtime October 26, 1928; “Der yudisher Mussolini” [The Jewish Mussolini], Naye folktsaytung, January 4, 1929; “Nider mitn fashistn revizionizm” [Down with Fascist Revisionism], Bafrayung arbeter shtime, October 28, 1932; “Oyb nisht nokh nideriker” [If not lower], Unzer frayhayt, November 11, 1932. 2.CitationGourevitch, “Jabotinsky and the Hebrew Language,” 594. 3. “Shir Betar” [Song of Betar], Hazit ha-Am, March 22, 1932. 4. Most accounts of the Revisionist movement's history written by its sympathizers are embedded within biographies of Jabotinsky. See CitationBen Baruch, Jabotinsky, lohem ha-umah; CitationNedava, Jabotinsky be-hazon ha-dor; CitationSchechtman, Rebel and Statesman; CitationSchechtman, Fighter and Prophet; CitationKatz, Zhabo. For histories of Betar and Revisionism written by former leaders of these movements, see CitationBenari and Schechtman, History of the Revisionist Movement; Ben-Yerucham, Sefer Betar. The best-known popular history of Revisionism that aimed to discredit the movement is CitationBrenner, The Iron Wall. 5.CitationShavit, Me-rov li-medinah; CitationShavit, Jabotinsky and the Revisionist Movement; CitationHeller, “Ha-monizm shel ha-matarah”; CitationHeller, The Stern Gang, 1–58; CitationZouplna, “Vladimir Jabotinsky,” 35–63; CitationShindler, The Triumph of Military Zionism; CitationWeitz, “The Revisionist Movement and Democracy.” 6. For examples of these approaches, see Heller, The Stern Gang, 6; Zouplna, “Vladimir Jabotinsky,” 36, 51; Shindler, The Triumph of Military Zionism, 199–212; CitationCapkova, “Piłsudski or Masaryk?” 211. 7.CitationStanislawski, Zionism and the Fin de Siècle, 116–202. 8. Jabotinsky, “Yo, brekhn” [Yes, break it], Haynt, November 4, 1932. 9. See CitationGorsuch, Youth in Revolutionary Russia; CitationKoon, Believe, Obey, Fight; CitationWhitney, Mobilizing Youth; CitationWohl, The Generation of 1914.10.CitationBrit Trumpeldor, 811. On Betar's membership in Poland, see “Bericht des Mifkada-Eljona des Brith Trumpeldor an die IV. Weltkonferenz der Union der Zionisten-Revisionisten 1929-August 1930,” Jabotinsky Institute, Tel Aviv (hereafter JI), B1/3-3.For a brief overview of Piłsudski's Sanacja regime, see CitationPlach, The Clash of Moral Nations. On the parallels drawn by Revisionists between Zionism and Polish nationalism, see CitationShavit, “Politics and Messianism.”12. “Ershter reshime fun di gezamlte gelter, vos unzere kenim hot gezamlt far ‘keren kayemet le-israel’ farn letstn halbn yor” [The first list of collected funds that our branches have gathered for the Jewish National Fund in the last six months], Tel Chaj: Yarhon le-inyanei ha-no'ar ha-ivri, June–July 1930, 17–18; “Ha-mo'atzah shel merkazei histadruyot-hano'ar le-ma'an ha-keren ha-kayemet le-Yisrael” [The Council of the centers of the youth organizations on behalf of the Jewish National Fund], Tel Chaj, July 1931, 15.13. Betar's defense training programs in Poland began to be organized by Yermiyahu Halperin in 1931. Prior to and following his arrival, thousands of Betar members joined local branches of Poland's National Agency for Physical Education and Military Preparation (Państwowy Urząd Wychowania Fizycznego i Przysposobienia Wojskowego), founded by Piłsudski to prepare a new cadre of recruits for the Polish army. For reports on Betar's participation in these units, see, for example, “Din ve-heshbon fun dem 2-tn alpoylishn tsiyonistishn revizionistishn tsuzamenfar” [Report of the 2nd All-Polish Zionist Revisionist meeting/conference?] Der Emes, January 20, 1928; “Korespondentsies” [Correspondence], Der Emes, September 28, 1928; “Betar arbet in poyln” [Betar's work in Poland], Ha-Medinah, March 5, 1933; CitationRemba, ed., Shnatayim, 11; “Z ruchu betarowego w Środkowej Małopolsce” [From the Betar Movement in the center of the region of Lesser Poland], Trybuna Narodowa, August 31, 1934.14. See, for example, A. Propes, “Unzer firer” [Our leader], Tel Hai, October 1930; M. Lejzerowicz, “Ha-holem veha-lohem” [The dreamer and the fighter], Tel Chaj, October 1930; Zelig Lerner, “Pulhan ha-hoveh” [The cult of the present], Tel Chaj, October 1930; telegrams addressed to Jabotinsky, October–November 1930, JI/A1/3/18-3.15. For examples of Jabotinsky's early complaints about the Revisionist movement's growth, see Jabotinsky to Yaakov Hoffman 13 July 1927; Jabotinsky to Richard Lichtheim, August 14, 1927; Jabotinsky to Shlomo Gepstein, July 27, 1929. For a brief window into Jabotinsky's complaints about the movement's financial woes, see Jabotinsky to Yaakov de Haas, February 7, 1928; Jabotinsky to Shlomo Jacobi, March 24, 1928; Jabotinsky to Wolfgang von Weisl, January 29, 1931; Jabotinsky to Meir Grossman, February 4, 1931. See notes below for references to conflicts within the Revisionist Executive leadership in 1931. For examples of conflicts within the Revisionist Executive leadership in 1930, see Jabotinsky to Grossman, July 9 and 13, 1930, and October 25, 1930; Jabotinsky to the London Revisionist Executive, July 27, 1930, and November 9, 1930 (Jabotinsky's letters are located at JI/A1-2 and are also available online at http://www.jabotinsky.org/hebsite/modules/arc_search.asp?srid = 1&sid = 4&pid = 27).16. Zouplna, “Vladimir Jabotinsky,” 38–39; Robinson, CitationSe'arah mesaya'at, 27–30.17. See, for example, M. Grossman, “Geferlekhe shtimungen” [Dangerous voices], Der emes, November 20, 1928; M. Grossman, “Mir un di tsionistishe organizatsye” [The Zionist Organization and us], Der nayer veg, May 15, 1932.18. See, for example, Jabotinsky to M. Grossman, October 25, 1930, and March 19, 1931; Jabotinsky to J. Machower, January 25, 1931, and March 6, 1931; Jabotinsky to Richard Lichtheim, March 20, 1931.19. Shavit, Jabotinsky and the Revisionist Movement, 37.20. See, for example, “Polityka Weizmana czy nowy kurs Żabotyńskiego?” [The politics of Weizmann or Jabotinsky's new course?], Nasz Przegląd, July 5, 1931; “Ani ma'amin Żabotyńskiego” [Jabotinsky's credo], Chwila, July 8, 1931.21. “Revisionists Return to Congress after Quitting amidst Uproar,” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, July 13, 1931.22. “Split in Revisionist Party as Jabotinsky Takes Six Months Leave of Absence,” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, July 17, 1931.23. Zouplna, “Vladimir Jabotinsky,” 47–49.24. Jabotinsky to Eliyahu Ben Horin, September 17, 1931.25. See, for example, Wolfgang von Weisl to Jabotinsky, January 20, 1927, JI/A1/3/15; Wolfgang von Weisl to Jabotinsky, January 14, 1928, JI/A1/3/16; Abba Ahimeir to Jabotinsky, October 17 and 25, 1928, JI/A1/3/16; Wolfgang von Weisl to Jabotinsky, January 17, 1931, JI/A1/3/19.26. Reuwen Ben-Szem, “Oyf der Vokh” [On the week], Der Emes, September 28, 1928. For examples of Betar members calling for the movement to embrace fascism, see Ze'ev Shem Tov in Igrot, September 12, 1928; “Le-virur ha-ra'ayon” [Clarification of the idea], Igrot, December 12, 1928; A. Lipman, “Propagande referat: Halutziut, arbeter-frage, sotzializm, fashizm un unzer yugend” [A propaganda lecture: Pioneering, the worker's question, socialism, fascism, and our youth], in Revizionistishe grund-problemen fun revizionistishe teoretiker [Basic Revisionist problems for Revisionist theorists], vol. 4 (Warsaw: Farlag Instruktor, 1931), 10, JI/G33/3/2.27. Zelig Lerner, “Rekhtlekhe gevaldkayt” [Justified violence], Tel Chaj, February 1, 1930.28. Jabotinsky, “Garibaldi,” Tel Chaj, December 1, 1929 (originally published as “Mrakobes” in Felyetonii (St. Petersburg, 1913), 264–74). Jabotinsky would later describe Garibaldi as a model for liberal nationalism. Shindler, The Triumph of Military Zionism, 134–35.29. See, for example, Jabotinsky, “Ha-tziyonut ha-fashistit” [Fascist Zionism], in CitationNedava, Ha-reviziyonizm ha-tziyoni be-hitgabshuto, 124–30 (originally published in Rassvyet, December 20, 1925); “Die faschistische Richtung im Zionismus,” Revisionistische Blätter, July 1, 1927, 1–13; “Zionist Fascism” The Zionist 1, no. 4, June 25, 1926.30. Jabotinsky to Menachem Arber, June 3, 1928; Jabotinsky to Betar Latvia, November 5, 1928.31. Jabotinsky, “Brit Trumpeldor,” Rassvyet, January 27, 1929; “Di yugend fun hertslishn tsionizm” [The youth of Herzlian Zionism], Der nayer veg, July 27, 1930, and August 10, 1930.32. For moments in which Jabotinsky articulated reluctant support for Fascism in the late 1920s and early 1930s, see “Rozmowa z wodzem rewizjonizmu” [Conversation with the leader of Revisionism], Chwila, January 4, 1929, 11; Jabotinsky to Miriam Lang, August 27, 1930.33. Jabotinsky to Shlomo Gepstein, October 16, 1930; Jabotinsky to Richard Lichtheim, March 20, 1931; Jabotinsky to Baruch Weinstein, December 29, 1931. On the biryonim serving as “accelerators,” see Jabotinsky to Baruch Weinstein, May 26, 1932.34. Jabotinsky to J. Machower, March 6, 1931; Jabotinsky to M. Grossman, March 19, 1931; Jabotinsky to Richard Lichtheim, March 20, 1931.35. Jabotinsky to M. Grossman, January 26, 1932; Jabotinsky to the Revisionist Executive in London, January 28, 1932; Jabotinsky to Alexander Punianski, May 26, 1932.36. Jabotinsky to Y.H. Yeivin, August 9, 1932.37. M. Gantsnberg, “Di betsiyung tsvishn betar un brith ha-tsohar” [The relationship between Betar and the Union of Revisionist Zionists], Der nayer veg 7 [no date legible], 1932; M. Grossman, “Unzer hov tsu der revizionistisher yugnt” [Our debt to the Revisionist youth], Der nayer veg, November 27, 1932.38. For examples of uses of the term “generational conflict” in interwar France, Germany, Britain and Italy, see CitationDowe, ed. Jugendprotest und Generationenkonflikt, 113–208. On “generational cohorts” as a social construct, see Wohl, The Generation of 1914; CitationBessel, “The ‘Front Generation.’” For a collection of articles from the interwar period theorizing the existence of generational cohorts and the conflict of generations, see CitationEsler, ed., The Youth Revolution.39.CitationPomfret, “Lionised and Toothless.”40. See, for example, Ton, “Di yugend un – mir” [The youth and us], Haynt, January 1, 1932; CitationWeinreich, Der veg tsu unzer yugnt, 9–12, 169–281.41. Over 7,000 Betar members in Poland participated in the survey. See “She'elonim snif Polaniyah ” [Questionnaires of the Polish branch], JI/B1-10.42.CitationAvodatenu: Din ve-heshbon, 17–19.43. Propes, “Brit hatsohar un betar” [The Union of Revisionist Zionists and Betar], Tel Chaj, August 1930, 4. See also “Yoman” [Diary] Tel Chaj, February 1930, 3, and “Di revizionistishe konferentz” [The Revisionist conference], Biuletin shel betar be-polin: Avodatenu 3 [n.d.]44. Undated letter from Moshe Lejzerowicz in a collection of letters sent to the Central Revisionist Office in Paris, 1925–1929, JI/G1/9.45. “Protokoll der 8. Sitzung” [Minutes of the 8th session], in “Ha-ve'idah ha-olamit ha-4: Protokolim ve-hahlatot, 10–14.8.1930” [The 4th world congress: Minutes and resolutions, August 10–14, 1930], JI/G2/7/1/III.46. Ibid.47. Propes, “Brit hatsohar un betar”; David Melamed, “Betar veha-tzohar” [Betar and the Union of Revisionist Zionists], Tel Chaj, December 25, 1929.48. Jabotinsky, “Ha-no'ar shel ha-tziyonut ha-hertzela'it” [The youth of Herzlian Zionism], Do'ar ha-Yom, August 29, 1930.49.CitationBrit Trumpeldor: Hartza'ot, vikuhim ve-hahlatot, 71–72.50. Jabotinsky, “Ha-no'ar shel ha-tziyonut ha-hertzela'it.”51. Jabotinsky to the General Secretary of Betar's Command, July 30, 1931. Jabotinsky asked that the letter's contents be communicated to Betar members.52. Jabotinsky refers to this letter in a letter addressed to the London Executive Committee, August 17, 1931.53. “Musar ha-atzma'ut” [The morality of independence], Ha-Medinah, September 25, 1931, 2. Originally published in Rassvyet, August 30, 1931.54. Jakób Rothmann to Revisionist London Executive, September 5, 1931, JI/G33/1/10.55.CitationKunicki, “The Polish Crusader,” 13–23.56. Lejzerowicz to London Revisionist Executive, August 23, 1931, JI/G2/5/38.57. Jabotinsky, “Zionist-Revisionists in Poland: To the Editor of the Times,” London Times, January 26, 1932.58. Jabotinsky to the editors of the Times, January 6, 1932. These passages were excised from the published version of Jabotinsky's letter.59. Jabotinsky, “Vegn avanturizm,” Haynt, February 26, 1932. Reprinted in CitationZamlbukh far betarisher yugend, 32–40.60. “Mittwoch den 31, August 1932. Herr Vl. Jabotinsky,” in “Protocols and Decisions of the 5th World Revisionist Conference, 28.8–3.9.1932,” JI/G2/7/4/III. Interestingly, an account of Jabotinsky's speech that appeared in Der nayer veg, the Revisionist journal edited by Meir Grossman, added several words and lines that do not appear in the original recording of his speech in the conference protocols. This includes Jabotinsky's insistence that he was “unconditionally loyal to the democratic form of the Revisionist organization.” Sefer Betar, the official party history of the movement, added the following line to his speech: “I stand with all my strength by the democratic nature of our movement.” See CitationBen-Yeruham, Sefer Betar, 1:425.61. Jabotinsky, “Prakim fun a rede” [Selections of a speech], Haynt, September 9, 1932.62. Jabotinsky, “A dor realistn” [A generation of Realists], Haynt, February 19, 1932.63. “Zeyde liberalism” [Grandfather liberalism], Haynt, October 14, 1932.64. Jabotinsky to the London Revisionist Executive, January 2, 1933.65. See “Ha-mo'atzah ha-olamit be-Katowitz” [The world council in Katowice] JI/G2/7/5, 34.66. Interview, David Boiko, “Ha-mo'atzah ha-olamit shel ha-tzohar be-Katowitz” [The world council of the Union of Revisionist Zionists in Katowice], February 8, 1971, JI/EB4, 1. See also Schechtman, Fighter and Prophet, 166–70. Unlike Boiko, Schechtman insists that Jabotinsky had not reached a decision about the “putsch” until after the Katowice conference.67. Jabotinsky to Meir Grossman, March 22, 1922.68. “Jabotinsky Suspends Revisionist Executive Following Conference” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, March 23, 1933. See also Jabotinsky to Members of the Revisionist Movement, March 22, 1933; Jabotinsky to Betar members, March 22, 1933.69. At the time, Propes had been on hiatus as commander of Betar in Poland, but was reinstated following the events of March 1933.70. Jabotinsky, “Kruz” [Manifesto], Avodatenu 16 (April 1933).71. “Der zin fun plebisit” [The meaning of the plebiscite], Moment, April 16, 1933. See also “Kruz rosh Betar” [The head of Betar's manifesto], Ha-Medinah, March 26, 1933, “Oyfruf fun Ze'ev Jabotinsky tsu di revizionistn” [Jabotinsky's speech to the Revisionists], Ha-Medinah, March 26, 1933.72. “Kruz nasi ha-tsohar” [Manifesto of the president of the Union of Revisionist Zionists] Ha-Medinah, April 10, 1933.73. Jabotinsky to members of Betar, March 22, 1933.74. Jabotinsky to Israel Trivus, March 23, 1933 (my emphasis).75. “Text Eines vom Londoner Büro der JTA Mitgeteilten Telegramms, datiert 23 März 1933,” JI/G2/7/5, 106.76. Interview, David Boiko, “Ha-mo'atzah ha-olamit shel ha-tzohar be-katowitz” [The world council of the Union of Revisionist Zionists in Katowice], 8 February 1971, JI/EB4, 2.77. “Majer Grossman o zamachu dyktatorskim Żabotyńskiego” [Meir Grossman on Jabotinsky's dictatorial coup], Nasz Przegląd, March 24, 1933; “Grossman przeciw puczowi Żabotyńskiego” [Grossman against Jabotinsky's putsch], Chwila, March 25, 1933.78. “Ha-tokhnit ha-makhri'ah” [The decisive plan], Ha-Medinah, March 26, 1933.79. L. Lipshitz, “Ver zol firn?” [Who should lead?], Ha-Medinah, March 26, 1933.80. Propes, “Unzer” [Ours], Avodatenu 16, April 1936, 2.81.Avodatenu: Din ve-heshbon, 19.82. “Erklerung” [Clarification], Baranovitsher vort, April 23, 1933.83. “Darko shel Jabotinsky – derekh ha-tzohar!” [Jabotinsky's path is the Revisionist Zionists' path!], Hazit ha-Am, March 28, 1933.84. Jabotinsky to Shlomo Jacobi, May 13, 1933.85. See CitationRiley, The Civic Foundations of Fascism in Europe, 1–71; CitationMann, Fascists, 43–47.86.CitationMazower, Dark Continent, 20–25. For useful surveys of the disintegration of parliamentary democracy across interwar Europe, and the types of arguments used by supporters of the authoritarian regimes that emerged in their place, see CitationPolonsky, Little Dictators; CitationRothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars.87. See CitationPaxton, “The Five Stages of Fascism,” as well as his most recent book on the subject, CitationThe Anatomy of Fascism, 3–23.Additional informationNotes on contributorsDaniel Kupfert HellerDaniel Kupfert Heller is an assistant professor in the Department of Jewish Studies at McGill University. His areas of research include Jewish life in modern eastern Europe, the history of Zionism, and the history of childhood and youth. He is currently writing a book on the Betar youth movement in Poland between the two world wars.