The grammar of knowledge in Maaka (Western Chadic, Nigeria)

Abstract Maaka, a Chadic language of north-eastern Nigeria, has a variety of means expressing notions of knowledge and truth. The language has a complicated system of expressing information source within a noun phrase, and also within a clause. This is in addition to further evidentiality strategies with their own epistemic overtones, by means of evidential markers and epistemic and modal verbs, which help estimate the reliability of information. In Maaka, knowledge and truth can be conceptualized as the result of direct observation and affectedness (vision, joint perception, intuition); belief and conviction; possession and ownership of epistemic resources; control over information; and shared insight and common experience. A tendency towards exclusive control of knowledge among the Maaka may be responsible for the development of its complex system of evidentials and epistemics.