The arid Andean plateau waterscapes and the lithium triangle: flamingos as flagships for conservation of high-altitude wetlands under pressure from mining development

Abstract The high Andean arid plateau extends through Peru, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile. Within the desert matrix, basins contain wetlands that provide essential resources for human activity, and habitat for biodiversity highly adapted to extreme temperatures, altitudes, and salinity gradients. In these waterscapes, the water balance, even without human intervention, is negative and their unique biodiversity and lifeways are now confronted with an unprecedented level of development from lithium mining for rechargeable batteries. The “lithium triangle” coincides with the areas of highest abundance of the altiplano’s iconic flamingos. Flamingos are an ideal flagship for conservation because of the landscape scale at which they use wetlands, and Network of Wetlands for Flamingo Conservation, which implies the sustainable use of these wetlands, can be invoked to determine priority conservation actions. Since 2016, mining exploration has increased throughout the region, most notably in Argentina. A review of the Environmental Impact Reports (IIAs) for projects in Catamarca, Argentina, shows that they do not comply with national guidelines: they do not adequately address water budgets, consider protected area status, engage local communities, or consider cumulative and synergistic impacts. While the transition to “green” energy sources holds the promise of mitigating the negative impacts of traditional energy sources responsible for climate change, a truly sustainable energy sector would consider the full life cycle of the battery (“cradle-to-grave”), the social and environmental impacts of mining, and the feedback processes across the coupled socioecological systems, from raw material mining through production, use, recycling, and disposal.