Quantifying groundwater dependence of a sub-polar lake cluster in Finland using an isotope mass balance approach

Abstract. A stable isotope study of 67 kettle lakes and ponds situated on an esker aquifer (90 km2) in northern Finland was carried out in the summer of 2013 to determine the role of groundwater inflow in groundwater-dependent lakes. Distinct seasonal fluctuations in the δ18O and δ2H values of lakes are the result of seasonal ice cover prohibiting evaporation during the winter. An isotope mass balance approach was used to calculate the inflow-to-evaporation ratios (ITOT/E) of all 67 lakes during the summer of 2013 when the isotopic compositions of the lakes were approaching a steady-state. The normalised relative humidity needed in this approach came from assuming a terminal lake situation for one of the lakes showing the highest isotope enrichment. Since evaporation rates were derived independently of any mass balance considerations, it was possible to determine the total inflow (ITOT) and mean turnover time (MTT) of the lakes. Furthermore, the groundwater seepage rates of those lakes revealing no visible surface inflow were calculated. Here, a quantitative measure was introduced for the dependence of a lake on groundwater (G index) that is defined as the percentage contribution of groundwater inflow to the total inflow of water to the given lake. The G index values of the lakes studied ranged from 27.8–95.0%, revealing large differences in groundwater dependency among the lakes. This study shows the effectiveness of applying an isotope mass balance approach to quantify the groundwater reliance of lakes situated in a relatively small area with similar climatic conditions.