Spatially and temporally understanding dynamic solid–electrolyte interfaces in carbon dioxide electroreduction

The ubiquity of solid-liquid interfaces in nature and the significant role of their atomic-scale structure in determining interfacial properties have led to intensive research. Particularly in electrocatalysis, however, a molecular-level picture that clearly describes the dynamic interfacial structures and organizations with their correlation to preferred reaction pathways in electrochemical reactions remains poorly understood. In this review, CO₂ electroreduction reaction (CO₂RR) is spatially and temporally understood as a result of intricate interactions at the interface, in which the interfacial features are highly relevant. We start with the discussion of current understandings and model development associated with the charged electrochemical interface as well as its dynamic landscape. We further highlight the interactive dynamics from the interfacial field, catalyst surface charges and various gradients in electrolyte and interfacial water structures at interfaces under CO₂RR working conditions, with emphasis on the interfacial-structure dependence of catalytic reactivity/selectivity. Significantly, a probing energy-dependent "<i>in situ</i> characterization map" for dynamic interfaces based on various complementary <i>in situ</i>/<i>operando</i> techniques is proposed, aiming to present a comprehensive picture of interfacial electrocatalysis and to provide a more unified research framework. Moreover, recent milestones in both experimental and theoretical aspects to establish the correct profile of electrochemical interfaces are stressed. Finally, we present key scientific challenges with related perspectives toward future opportunities for this exciting frontier.