Boil-off of red supergiants: mass loss and type II-P supernovae

The mass loss mechanism of red supergiant stars is not well understood, even though it has crucial consequences for their stellar evolution and the appearance of supernovae that occur upon core-collapse. We argue that outgoing shock waves launched near the photosphere can support a dense chromosphere between the star’s surface and the dust formation radius at several stellar radii. We derive analytic expressions for the time-averaged density profile of the chromosphere, and we use these to estimate mass loss rates due to winds launched by radiation pressure at the dust formation radius. These mass loss rates are similar to recent observations, possibly explaining the upward kink in mass loss rates of luminous red supergiants. Our models predict that low-mass red supergiants lose less mass than commonly assumed, while high-mass red supergiants lose more. The chromospheric mass of our models is $$0.01 solar masses, most of which lies within a few stellar radii. This can help explain the early light curves and spectra of type-II P supernovae without requiring extreme pre-supernova mass loss. We discuss implications for stellar evolution, type II-P supernovae, SN 2023ixf, and Betelgeuse.