Why ponds concentrate nutrients: the roles of internal features, land use, and climate

Abstract Ponds are key freshwater habitats supporting biodiversity and ecosystem services, yet they remain understudied in the context of land use and climate change. We examined 240 ponds across eight countries (seven in Europe and Uruguay) to assess how internal pond characteristics, surrounding land cover and livestock intensity, seasonal climatic variation, and climate influence nutrient concentrations across spatial and temporal scales. Nutrient concentrations were strongly associated with internal features: shallow ponds and short hydroperiods had higher total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations, while thermal stratification, typically found in deeper ponds, was associated with higher TN, indicating enhanced internal nutrient recycling. Land use also played a significant role with agricultural intensity increasing nutrient concentration (both TN and TP), whereas forest cover reduced TP. Seasonal variation modulated these patterns, with higher TP concentrations observed in summer, and with dilution effects during wetter and cooler periods, particularly for TN in semi-permanent ponds. These findings underscore the combined influence of physical characteristics, landscape context, and climate variability on nutrient concentrations in ponds and highlight the need for integrated, multi-scale approaches to anticipate the impacts of global climate change effects on these ecologically valuable ecosystems.