An overview of national and international long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake recommendations for healthy populations

The long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC <i>n</i>-3PUFA) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5<i>n</i>-3), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, 22:5<i>n</i>-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6<i>n</i>-3) are beneficial for health. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of worldwide dietary recommendations for LC <i>n</i>-3PUFA across life-stages for general healthy populations from technical and scientific documents (TSD) that underpin food based dietary guidelines (FBDG) or TSD from expert groups. Using the Food and Agriculture Organization global online repository of FBDG and structured Google searches, forty-two TSD were identified for inclusion. Seventy-one percent of TSD included quantitative dietary intake recommendations which varied widely across life-stages with gaps for some groups, 62% included health messages related to LC <i>n</i>-3PUFA consumption, 33% discussed supplementation and 29% gave guidance on high intakes. The most frequently recommended intakes for adults were 250 mg/day EPA + DHA and 250 mg/day EPA + DHA plus an additional 100-200 mg/day DHA in pregnancy. This overview is useful for nutrition science, medical, industry and consumer communities since it identifies the recommendations available and the gaps of interest to national or international groups wishing to set dietary intake recommendations for LC <i>n</i>-3PUFA. Low dietary intake of LC <i>n</i>-3PUFA from seafood is a risk factor for suboptimal health. Intake recommendations can be challenging to achieve. Most countries for which data are available show that LC <i>n</i>-3PUFA intakes fail to meet recommended targets, highlighting the need for accessible, innovative, sustainable alternative EPA + DHA sources e.g. bio-enriched foods and supplements to support higher population intakes, LC <i>n</i>-3PUFA status and health benefits.