Hybrid Governance with Armed Non-State Actors in a Fragile State: The Case of Iraq and the Kurdistan Region

Abstract This chapter explores Iraq’s hybrid governance, where formal state authority and armed non-state actors (ANSAs) coexist in a fragile and contested political order. Through case studies of Iraq and the Kurdistan Region, it examines how this hybrid governance is established, sustained, and contested. The chapter highlights the evolving relationship between the central government and ANSAs, shedding light on the dynamics of political stability in fragile states. Since 2003, the Iraqi state has struggled to monopolize the legitimate use of force, leading to the emergence of various ANSAs with diverse backgrounds. Rather than framing Iraq solely as a failed state, this chapter considers it as an instance of hybrid governance—a fluid and contested political order shaped by both the central government and ANSAs. It further argues that the Kurdistan Region represents a distinctive case of hybrid governance, simultaneously acting as a formal authority and as an ANSA within Iraq’s political structure. Drawing a parallel to the international system, where order is maintained through mutual recognition of international laws and regimes, the chapter contends that the authority of the central government—even when fragile and non-hierarchical—remains essential in shaping a certain political order. By examining how such a hybrid governance structure can achieve political order and stability, this chapter offers broader insights into the possibilities and limitations of political order in fragile states where formal authority and ANSAs coexist.