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Environmental factors support children's development, such as early education and high-quality interactions with their parents [1]. But we still don't know what impact the rapidly evolving technology and digital media (TDM) and emerging educational technology (EdTech) that surround children every day are having on them. For example, how does this technology affect children's core developmental foundations, such as language, executive functions, and socio-emotional abilities? This paper focuses on the impact that this exposure has on young children in Europe and highlights sensitive periods and relevant unexplored factors. Foundational skills in early childhood include language, executive functions, socio-emotional abilities and early numeracy. Executive functions comprise cognitive processes, such as working memory, inhibition and cognitive flexibility, and predict how ready children are for school and their expected academic outcomes [2]. Similarly, oral language and emerging literacy skills, including phonological awareness, vocabulary, print knowledge and numeracy skills, develop through interaction. These are essential for reading acquisition and arithmetic, respectively [3, 4]. The above abilities develop gradually during the critical period of birth to six years of age. Joint attention, early language and socio-emotional abilities develop dramatically up to two years of age and evidence has suggested that unsupervised TDM exposure has a significant effect on delayed language and reduced interactions between caregivers and children [5, 6]. From 3 to 6 years of age, children rapidly improve their language skills; they start to become more literate and they display executive functions. Neuroimaging studies have linked higher TDM exposure to delays in developing language and pre-reading skills [7]. When they reach around 6–7 years of age, children still depend on direct interaction and social exchanges with teachers and classmates. However, they are often exposed to digital material without their teacher's guidance [8]. These abilities emerge within brain networks that are shaped by both genetic predisposition and environmental input. For example, reading and maths depend on the recruitment and integration of existing networks for language, vision, and attention [4]. Socio-emotional factors develop rapidly during childhood. These include regulating emotions, joint attention, empathy, and understanding that people can think differently to them. These depend on interactions with emotionally available parents or caregivers and have been linked to long-term mental health and academic success [9]. The World Health Organization and the American Academy of Paediatrics have both issued guidelines that recommend limiting screen exposure in young children, due to accumulating evidence that has linked excessive TDM use to adverse developmental outcomes. According to The World Health Organization, these include delays in executive functions, language and social skills, particularly when exposure begins early and is unsupervised by adults [5]. One study used magnetic resonance imaging to show the impact that TDM use had on children aged 3–5 years. The authors reported that TDM was associated with underdeveloped white matter, reduced cortical thickness and weaker functional connectivity in the brain regions that support language and reading [7]. Exceeding paediatric recommendations for screen use has also been linked to poorer executive functions, lower readiness for reading and maths, and a lower expressive vocabulary [6]. It is important to state that not all digital media are inherently harmful. The DREAMER framework [10] proposes a more dynamic view of children's digital media exposure by focusing on the reasons for using media. Within this model, media use is shaped by environmental factors such as socioeconomic status and the emotional and physical availability of the caregivers, all of which may influence the impact of TDM on child development. Studies have shown that high-quality educational television programmes with explicit learning goals and adult involvement, such as Sesame Street, can promote vocabulary and early numeracy, especially in low-income populations [11]. In addition, interactive digital content may support cognitive engagement and socio-emotional outcomes, especially when adults are jointly engaging with the child [10]. The use of educational technology has been increasing across Europe and it has been integrated into early education. However, there are ongoing debates about the need for TDM bans. European Union strategies emphasise digital inclusion and lifelong learning and promote tools that support active engagement, collaboration, and critical thinking [1, 12]. The European Commission's Digital Education Action Plan for 2021–2027 [12]. Teacher capacity refers to teachers' ability to use digital tools confidently and effectively in the classroom, which depends on adequate training, technical support, and time to learn new methods. Inclusion refers to ensuring that all children—regardless of family income, disability, or where they live—have equal access to high-quality digital resources. In many European regions, unequal access to devices and home internet means that some children benefit from EdTech while others are left behind. Addressing teacher training and reducing digital inequality are therefore essential for the responsible use of TDM and EdTech in schools. There is caution around the use of smartphones in schools; however, the potential educational benefits of EdTech are also supported by the 2023 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization report [13]. This report included 79 worldwide education systems (without specifying the exact European countries included in it) [13], reviewing the use of electronic devices and smartphones in particular in their school systems. Although the report advocated for smartphone bans in schools, it suggests that smartphones could be used in the classroom to support learning [13]. In Finland, for example, it introduced a law earlier this year that appeared to follow the guidance from this report [14]. In 2019, Sweden's preschool curriculum, which goes up from birth to 6 years of age, mandated using TDM with children. However, the 2025 revision, informed by research, now restricts TDM to cases with a scientific evidence base [15]. Large-scale surveys across Europe have highlighted conflicting views from parents, who are hopeful about digital learning but anxious about child safety and development risks [5]. Programme for International Student Assessment data has shown that moderate, structured use of digital tools in the classroom, with teacher support, correlated with improved academic performance. In contrast, excessive leisure-based screen use during school hours correlated with lower math scores and increased distraction [8]. This suggests that meaningful learning can occur when EdTech, which is one of the many tools available to support learning, is thoughtfully integrated into the classroom by teachers. Ultimately, they play the most critical role in learning by guiding the context, content, and purpose of EdTech. TDMs that are shared socially, cognitively engaging, and promote interactions in the real world may foster development. However, isolated, unregulated use, especially during sensitive periods of child development, may be detrimental. A number of critical questions remain, despite growing research: What types of TDM support or hinder development across childhood, namely interactive versus narrative and solitary versus those that are jointly used? How do technology environments in school-based early learning vary, in terms of the tools that are available, how the teachers use them and the effects on attention, learning and wellbeing? What are the long-term neural impacts of early TDM use and which children are most vulnerable or resilient? How can we develop informed, age-appropriate guidelines that can be adapted to diverse European languages and cultures? What design features in EdTech promote cognitive, emotional and social development, such as the level of interpersonal and language interactivity and support of children and teachers when using TDM in school? Answering these questions will require longitudinal, cross-national studies that incorporate neurobiological, behavioural, and educational data. Policies must be better informed regarding the understanding of how, when, and why digital tools are used. Technology is here to stay and digital tools are becoming further embedded into children's homes and classrooms. However, its impact on child development is not predetermined. Clinicians and educators need to move beyond simple measures of screen time and focus on the quality of the content, how it relates to the child, and the impact it has on development at that age. Technology can support learning, but only when it is used intentionally, with guidance, and when guided by parents and teachers. Continued research is essential to guide parents, clinicians, educators, and policymakers so that they can support healthy child development in our increasingly digital world. Andrea Hahnefeld: investigation, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing. Tzipi Horowitz-Kraus: conceptualization, investigation, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing. Alice Cancer: investigation, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing. The authors have nothing to report. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.