From Current-Controlling Field-Effect Device to Intelligent Machines: How a Tiny Switch Sparked the Computing Revolution and Modern Artificial Intelligence

The computing revolution and the rise of modern artificial intelligence are rooted in the physics of semiconductor devices, where the field effect transistor (FET) emerged as the archetypal “tiny switch” enabling digital logic. This article commemorates the centennial of Lilienfeld’s pioneering conception of the field effect device, situating it as the intellectual and technological seed of the digital age. The narrative traces the continuum from Lilienfeld’s early vision and Alan Turing’s theoretical foundations of computation, through the invention of the transistor and the advent of transistorized computers. It examines the paradigm shift brought by integrated circuits (ICs), highlighting IBM’s System/360 and System/370 as milestones in architectural unification and silicon integration. The discussion then explores the realization of the metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) FET (MOSFET), the birth of the microprocessor, and the breakthroughs in complementary MOS (CMOS) technology that enabled high-density integration and ushered in the fourth generation of computers. Special attention is given to the challenges of MOSFET scaling, the emergence of multiple gate architectures such as FinFETs (fin FETs), and inventive extensions of planar devices including ultra-thin body FETs and buried halo MOSFETs. Finally, the article discusses how domain-specific architectures: Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), Tensor Processing Units (TPUs), and other application-specific ICs have leveraged advanced FET technologies to drive the current era of intelligent machines. By weaving together historical milestones, device innovations, and architectural transformations, this article underscores how the physics of the transistor switch continues to shape the trajectory of computing and artificial intelligence.