The development of instructor social connectedness instrument to predict student satisfaction, motivation and perceived learning in online courses

Purpose This study aimed to validate a survey instrument designed to measure instructor social connectedness in online higher education. Specifically, this study aimed to assess the extent to which this instrument could accurately predict students’ satisfaction, motivation and perceived learning. By examining the constructs within the FORCES framework – Feedback, Organization, Response time, Communication, Empathy and Sociability – this study seeks to determine the effectiveness of these facilitation strategies in fostering meaningful instructor-student connections, thereby enhancing the overall online learning experience. Research Questions (1) Does the FORCES instrument reliably measure instructor social connectedness in distance higher education? (2) To what extent does the FORCES instrument demonstrate content-related validity? (3) Does FORCES produce reasonable face validity? (4) To what extent does the FORCES instrument prove construct-related validity, as evidenced by the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)? Design/methodology/approach The survey instrument was developed based on the findings of two foundational studies (cf., Conklin & Garrett Dikkers, 2021, 2022). These qualitative studies investigated instructor social connectedness and strategies facilitating connectedness between instructors and students in asynchronous online learning environments. Based on a review of the two foundational studies, the research team crafted survey items to assess the impact of the FORCES framework on student satisfaction, motivation and perceived learning. Content experts reviewed the initial survey items to ensure the instrument's content validity. The survey items were further refined based on qualitative feedback from students. Findings FORCES demonstrated excellent reliability, with high internal consistency across all subscales (a = 0.92–0.96) and the full scale (a = 0.98), exceeding accepted standards. Content validity was supported through expert review, resulting in revisions for clarity and relevance while retaining organization as a facilitation component based on prior research. Face validity was confirmed through student think-aloud reviews, leading to minor wording enhancements. Construct validity was supported by confirmatory factor analysis, indicating strong model fit (CFI = 0.965; SRMR = 0.036) and significant factor loadings, though high correlation between empathy and sociability suggests potential subscale overlap. Research limitations/implications This study has several limitations. The sample was limited to two southeastern U.S. universities, restricting generalizability; future research should include more diverse institutional contexts. Reliance on self-reported data may introduce response bias, suggesting the need for observational or behavioral measures. Although CFA supported the six-factor FORCES framework, high correlations between Empathy and Sociability indicate potential construct overlap, warranting further examination. Finally, this study focused on student perceptions; future research should explore instructor perspectives and use longitudinal designs to examine long-term outcomes such as retention and academic performance. Practical implications This study highlights the importance of instructor social connectedness in online education and provides strong evidence for the reliability and validity of the FORCES framework. All subscales demonstrated high internal consistency, and CFA supported the six-factor structure, though high correlations between Empathy and Sociability suggest potential construct overlap. Course organization emerged as a key element of connectedness, with students perceiving well-structured courses as indicative of instructor care. Addressing a gap in existing measures, FORCES offers a theoretically grounded, multidimensional instrument that provides actionable insights for enhancing instructor presence and improving online learning outcomes. Originality/value This study advances online learning research by introducing and validating the FORCES framework as a reliable and valid measure of instructor social connectedness. Findings indicate that FORCES predicts key student outcomes, including satisfaction, motivation and perceived learning, while offering actionable guidance for enhancing instructor presence. The results highlight the critical role of social connectedness in improving online learning quality. As online education continues to expand, the FORCES framework provides educators and institutions with a practical, evidence-based approach to fostering engagement and creating supportive virtual learning environments.