Population structure and genetic diversity of smooth newts ( <i>Lissotriton vulgaris</i> ) in North Tyrol, Austria: influences of allochthonous individuals and conservation implications

Abstract Amphibians are threatened worldwide by various environmental and anthropogenic factors, making non-invasive conservation studies particularly valuable. Newts are one example of a thus challenged amphibian group. In Austria, local population declines of newts have been observed, with the smooth newt ( Lissotriton vulgaris ) being strongly affected. In this study, skin swabs were used as a non-invasive method to gather DNA, combined with established microsatellite markers. We sampled 139 L. vulgaris individuals at ten sites in North Tyrol, Austria, and, for comparison, 22 L. vulgaris meridionalis individuals in Brixen, Italy. We genotyped all individuals and analysed their population structure. We demonstrate the presence of three distinct L. vulgaris population clusters and find differences in population structure between supposedly introduced allochthonous L. vulgaris individuals and autochthonous populations, as evidenced by differences in Bayesian clustering and elevated values of the fixation index F ST . A captive population in a zoological garden, with origins in the Kramsacher Loar in the Tyrolean Unterland (eastern part of Tyrol), performed poorly in terms of conservation genetics, with low genetic diversity (number of alleles) and clear genetic differentiation from populations in the wild (high pairwise F ST values with wild individuals, clear separation in cluster analysis). Habitat restoration programs are a crucial aspect of amphibian conservation, as they restore ecosystems that are critical to the animals’ survival. While breeding programs can play an additional role in the future, they must carefully consider genetic diversity to ensure resilient and viable populations, especially in the face of climate change and chytrid fungus infection. This study emphasizes the significance of considering the geographic origin and genetic diversity of newts in conservation efforts. It also serves as a foundation for future population genetic studies of newts in Austria.