Cosmic Rays as an Interdisciplinary Earth Observation Tool: From Particle Physics and Atmospheric Processes to Geosciences and Urban Science

The exploration of cosmic rays, which are high-energy particles originate from space and the atmosphere, has historically been associated with particle physics and astrophysics. In the last 20 years, these particles have evolved into valuable tools for observing Earth's systems. This review compiles the use of cosmic rays in three primary areas: (1) particle physics and atmospheric processes, which include cosmic-ray-induced cascades, ionization, and their impact on atmospheric chemistry and radiation; (2) geosciences, where cosmogenic radionuclides assist in the dating of geological materials and cosmic-ray neutrons are used for large-scale monitoring of soil moisture and snow water equivalents; and (3) urban science, where cosmic-ray muons are employed for non-invasive subsurface imaging and, when paired with distributed sensors, serve as the basis for smart city monitoring. The review places particular emphasis on integrating these methods with remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS), which helps close the persistent scale gap between point measurements and satellite observations, thereby enabling three-dimensional digital representations of subsurfaces. The review concludes by discussing the data standards, their integration into operational Earth observation workflows, and future research directions.