Technology-Integrated Flashcards and Critical Thinking: Evidence from a TPACK-Oriented Augmented Reality Intervention

The rapid integration of digital technologies in classrooms has not automatically translated into the development of higher-order thinking skills. This study investigates the effectiveness of technology-integrated flashcards enhanced through augmented reality (AR) and designed within a Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework to improve fourth-grade students’ critical thinking skills in IPAS learning. A quantitative quasi-experimental design with a non-equivalent control group was employed. The participants consisted of 43 students from two primary schools in Bone Regency, Indonesia (23 in the experimental group and 20 in the control group). Data were collected through pretest and posttest critical thinking assessments and analyzed using descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-tests, and normalized gain (N-gain) analysis. The results revealed no significant difference in pretest scores between groups (p = .893), indicating comparable baseline ability. However, posttest results showed a statistically significant difference in favor of the experimental group (t(41) = 6.82, p < .001) with a large effect size (d = 2.09). The experimental group achieved a moderate N-gain (0.56), substantially higher than the control group. These findings suggest that AR flashcards, when pedagogically structured through TPACK principles, can effectively foster critical thinking in primary education. The study highlights the importance of purposeful technology integration in promoting meaningful cognitive engagement rather than superficial digital enhancement.