Aflatoxin detection in pistachio nuts: conventional methods, emerging technologies, and critical insights

Aflatoxin contamination in pistachios, caused by <i>Aspergillus flavus</i> and <i>Aspergillus parasiticus</i>, poses significant risks to food safety and global trade due to its carcinogenic properties. This review examines traditional detection methods such as High-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. Although these techniques are highly precise, they are costly, destructive, and impractical for smallholder farmers. Emerging nondestructive technologies enable rapid, accurate detection without destroying the sample, particularly when Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) is combined with machine learning. Regulatory thresholds such as the European Union (EU) 8 µg/kg limit for AFB1 create challenges for producers and exporters, especially since HSI methods often lack the precision required for validated quantitative regression at this level on naturally contaminated pistachio kernels. High implementation costs, limited regulatory guidance, and calibration demands hinder its adoption. Climate change heightens contamination risks, calling for predictive models that integrate HSI with environmental data. To support equitable access, especially for smallholder farmers, reducing costs, standardizing protocols, and enhancing global cooperation are essential. These measures will strengthen food safety and regulatory compliance in pistachio production.