Paleoparasitology of historical toilets and mummies in South Korea: trends and perspectives

Paleoparasitology has emerged as a discipline situated at the intersection of anthropology, archaeology, public health and medical science. In South Korea, research on mummies over the past few decades has yielded critical insights into historical parasite infections. Parasitological analysis of intestinal contents from well-preserved Joseon-period mummies, largely representing individuals of the upper social classes, has enabled the direct identification of parasite taxa and estimation of infection prevalence in pre-modern Korea. Beyond mummies, parasitological examinations of toilet remains have enabled reconstructions of parasitic infection dynamics in pre-modern Korean society. No toilet structures have been identified from Neolithic sites in Korea, although coprolites recovered from shell middens provide key evidence for this period. With the rise of the Three Kingdoms, archaeological evidence indicates the construction and use of increasingly sophisticated toilet facilities, including cesspit and flush-type systems, which continued to develop in later historical periods. Toilets dating to the late Joseon Dynasty and the early 20th century frequently contain coprolite samples heavily infested with parasite eggs, and their detection has confirmed the presence of toilets at otherwise uncertain archaeological sites. Across both mummy and toilet contexts, commonly identified parasites include soil-transmitted helminths such as <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> and <i>Trichuris trichiura</i>, as well as food-borne trematodes, reflecting long-term interactions among sanitation practices, subsistence strategies and human health in Korea.