Sex-specific metabolic and microbial remodeling in a rotenone-induced rat model of Parkinson’s disease following nicotine administration

Nicotine exerts neuroprotection in PD through sex-dependent modulation of multiple pathological pathways, primarily involving the gut-microbiota-metabolite axis. Females benefit from enhanced gastrointestinal protection and metabolic reprogramming, while males show preferential motor balance restoration. These findings underscore the critical importance of sex-stratified therapeutic strategies for PD.