Flooding adaptation strategies in coastal informal settlements: a case study of Culvert Community, Freetown, Sierra Leone

Changes in climate are triggering extreme weather events, including floods that impact millions of people. Among the most vulnerable are informal settlements located in flood-prone areas. The current study addresses a knowledge gap regarding the individual and collective adaptation strategies undertaken in the absence of government support. We focus on Culvert Community, an informal settlement in Freetown, Sierra Leone, that has experienced recurrent flooding for several decades, in large part due to blockages caused by ineffective municipal solid waste management. We apply the PARA (Protect, Accommodate, Retreat, Avoid) framework to analyse residents' adaptation strategies to reduce their exposure and vulnerability to flooding. Interview and focus group participants focused on adaptation strategies categorised as protection and accommodation that allow them to remain in their community. For the most part, protection strategies involve collective action, whereas accommodation strategies are undertaken by individual households. In addition, residents identified economic, sociocultural, and governance factors that influence their selection of adaptation strategies. Our study demonstrates use of the PARA framework as a lens to analyse the selection of adaptation strategies, and deepens our understanding of how climate adaptation is shaped by complex factors, particularly in the context of informal settlements. © 2026 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.