A synthesis of principles for building the social–ecological resilience and adaptive capacity of protected and conserved areas

The long-term success of protected and conserved areas depends on their capacity to remain relevant to human society while maintaining diverse, functional ecosystems. However, despite long-standing interest in applying complex systems approaches to foster protected area (PA) social-ecological resilience and adaptive capacity, a gap between theory and practice remains. We reviewed the evolution of overarching principles for resilience management to provide a cohesive synthesis and identify priorities for conservation governance and management. A systematic literature search identified 15 individual articles that together proposed 20 interrelated thematic clusters (themes) of principles. Analysis of connections between themes and publications identified 2 main schools, one with a more institutional focus (the Ostrom school) and the other with a more ecological focus (the Holling school). We assessed the strengths and weaknesses of the combined set of resilience principles with a focus on identifying gaps in current knowledge. Strengths included principles supported by extensive research on ecological diversity, heterogeneity, and collaborative governance. Key gaps relating to PA resilience included 3 interrelated needs for future research and action: developing governance solutions that extend beyond traditional PA boundaries, clarification of the dynamics of the relationship between resilience and transformation agendas, and deeper and more formal inclusion of justice and equity in resilience management. The rigorous establishment, application, and testing of science-based principles for building and supporting resilience and adaptive capacity, and their translation into conservation actions, remain a critically important goal for conservation science.