Deconstructing cardiovascular and coagulation-related traits links dietary ecology to multi-functional snake venom specificity

Animal venoms vary greatly in compositional complexity, where complex venoms are hypothesized to be maintained by greater dietary breadth. Beyond explaining venom composition, the dietary breadth hypothesis predicts that these more complex venoms should show greater functional breadth in terms of overall toxicity and by disrupting multiple prey physiological processes. We evaluate these predictions with six distinct physiological assays of cardiac and blood clotting functions and compared the effects of venoms from snake species with a range of taxonomic dietary diversity levels. We compared the taxonomic dietary generalists Agkistrodon piscivorus and Sistrurus miliarius to taxa with varying taxonomic specialization, namely Agkistrodon contortrix and Crotalus adamanteus, and Azemiops feae. Comparing fish thrombocyte and mammal platelet aggregation and fibrin clot formation, only species with broader diets disrupted both fish and mammal hemostatic function. Venom of A. piscivorus, a uniquely fish-eating species, was the most disruptive of zebrafish heart rate, thrombocyte activation, vascular permeability, and clotting after injury. S. miliarius was also highly toxic, whereas mammal-specialists' venoms scarcely altered zebrafish physiology. Our results support the hypothesis that dietary breadth selects functionally-complex venoms. Understanding venom gene evolution, snakebite symptoms, and searching for therapeutics in venom should be guided by evolutionary ecology.