Persistent neuroimmune alterations in children who are HIV-exposed but uninfected at age 6–7 years: Associations with language development in a South African birth cohort

Abstract Background Children who are HIV-exposed but uninfected (HEU) are at increased risk of neurodevelopmental delays, yet neuroimmune pathways linking perinatal HIV exposure to school readiness remain unclear. Methods In the Drakenstein Child Health Study, 268 children (94 HEU, 174 HIV-unexposed [HU]) underwent magnetic resonance spectroscopy in midline parietal grey and left parietal white matter regions at 6–7 years. Peripheral blood serum immune markers were measured in pregnancy and in children at 6 weeks, 2, 3, and 5 years. Linear mixed-effects models characterised child immune trajectories and linear regressions tested associations with creatine-referenced neurometabolite ratios and school readiness scores. Results Mothers living with HIV had higher sCD14 and lower MMP-9, NGAL, and GM-CSF than mothers without HIV (p<0.05). Perinatal HIV exposure was associated with altered trajectories of child sCD14, GM-CSF, IL-1β, IL-5, IL-10, and YKL-40. At 6–7 years, children who were HEU had lower parietal grey matter glutamate ratios and lower left parietal white matter choline ratios. By school entry, immune–neurometabolite associations were predominantly driven by child serum markers; IL-8 emerged as a consistent correlate across developmental stages. Children who were HEU had lower language scores than HU peers. Left parietal white matter choline ratios were positively associated with language and overall school readiness in HU children, but not HEU. Conclusions Perinatal HIV exposure was associated with alterations in immune development, neurometabolites reflecting both white matter maturation and neuronal health, and school readiness. Our findings highlight potential neuroimmune pathways contributing to neurodevelopmental risks in children who are HEU.