Effectiveness of the mitigation and adaptation policies and governance across Europe: Insights from the CROSSEU project

As climate change increasingly impacts ecosystems, economic activity, and human well-being, Europe is accelerating the development of coherent and effective climate action under the umbrella of the Paris Agreement and the EU Green Deal. This research evaluates the dynamics and effectiveness of existing mitigation and adaptation policies and governance frameworks at the European Union level and within eight European countries: Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Romania, and the United Kingdom.This work combines an extensive review of primary EU and national policy documents in force in 2025, with insights from 42 semi-structured interviews with key informants, including experts from European institutions, national decision-makers, research organisations, and civil society representatives. The interviews provide critical insights into actual implementation dynamics, political priorities and challenges, and the institutional barriers that shape climate action beyond formal planning commitments.The analysis focuses on the core pillars of climate policy, examining objectives, timeframes, and sectoral coverage across key socio-economic sectors such as energy, transport, agriculture, health, infrastructure, and water management. A focal point is the tension between sustainable development, mitigation and adaptation, as mitigation policies are relatively mature and supported by robust EU monitoring, while adaptation remains heterogeneous and under-prioritised or under-financed. The findings reveal significant gaps in the operationalisation of climate strategies, short-termism and polarisation or weak institutional cooperation, despite the steady development of the formal strategic settings, the limited but useful involvement of civil society, the limited actual focus on societal issues and legislative gaps, among others.Our findings inform the development of the CROSSEU Decision Support System, ensuring the tool reflects real-world governance constraints and stakeholder needs. By identifying where synergies emerge and where institutional bottlenecks constrain progress, the research supports the translation of climate-socio-economic risks data into actionable, socially-informed decision pathways. Furthermore, the strong national specificities highlight the need for understanding the local context and the relevance of comparative research for fostering equitable and resilient climate strategies at the European scale.This research was funded by the "Cross-sectoral Framework for Socio-Economic Resilience to Climate Change and Extreme Events in Europe (CROSSEU)" project, under the European Union’s Horizon Europe Programme (Grant agreement No. 101081377).