Embracing sustainability: reducing ecological and human health risks from e-waste exposure through adoption of safer management approaches

Electronic waste (e-waste) is one of the fastest-growing solid waste streams worldwide, increasing at an estimated annual rate of 3%–5% due to rapid technological advancement, rising consumption of electronic devices, shortened product lifespans and inadequate end-of-life management systems. E-waste comprises a complex mixture of valuable recoverable resources alongside numerous hazardous substances, including heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants and emerging contaminants. When improperly collected, recycled or disposed of, these materials pose substantial risks to environmental quality and human health across both developed and developing regions. This review synthesizes the current global status and trends of e-waste generation, collection and recycling, and critically examines recent evidence on the distribution and impacts of e-waste-derived contaminants in soil, air and dust environments, plants, animals, aquatic systems and human populations. Beyond documenting contamination patterns, the review highlights key exposure pathways, vulnerability hotspots and persistent knowledge gaps. To address these challenges, the paper systematically evaluates approaches for sustainable e-waste management, including policy and regulatory frameworks, collection systems, recycling and recovery technologies, eco-design strategies, integration of the informal sector, international cooperation and public awareness. Collectively, the review underscores that advancing sustainable e-waste management requires coordinated, circular-economy-oriented interventions that simultaneously reduce environmental toxicity, enhance resource recovery and protect human health.