Integrated BLV surveillance in Kazakhstan, 2025: diagnostic complementarity and risk zoning

Integrated surveillance combining serological testing, molecular detection, and spatial analysis provides a robust framework for assessing BLV epidemiology in endemic countries. The 2025 data from Kazakhstan demonstrate that diagnostic complementarity is essential for accurate spatial risk zoning and epidemiological interpretation. This framework supports risk-based decision-making and is readily transferable to other BLV-endemic settings with heterogeneous production systems, potentially informing the development of targeted surveillance and control strategies.