Flavonoid components, antibacterial and anti‑inflammatory activities of extracts from different organs of <i>Sapindus mukorossi</i> Gaertn

Currently, the use of <i>Sapindus mukorossi</i> Gaertn. mainly focuses on its saponin-rich fruits. To expand the application fields of <i>S. mukorossi</i>, this study investigated the total flavonoid content in extracts from its leaves (L), flowers (F), and flower buds (B), using ultraviolet (UV) spectrophotometry. The chemical constituents of flavonoids were then analysed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). In total, 44 flavonoids were identified. All three extracts exhibited strong inhibition effects against <i>Escherichia coli</i> (ATCC 8099), <i>Staphylococcus aureu</i> (ATCC 6538), and <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i> (ATCC 27853). Anti-inflammatory assays further demonstrated that the three extracts significantly reduced levels of inflammatory mediators, including nitric oxide (NO), interleukins (IL-1<i>β</i> and IL-6), and tumour necrosis factor (TNF-<i>α</i>), compared to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated group (<i>p</i> < 0.01). These findings provide data supporting the potential application of <i>S. mukorossi</i> in medicine and daily chemicals, contributing to its comprehensive development and utilisation.