Contrasting Climatic and Land-Use Controls Structure Nutrient and Turbidity Regimes Across Mediterranean River Basins

Understanding how climate and land use interact to shape freshwater quality remains challenging across heterogeneous river basins. This study analysed monthly citizen-science measurements of nitrate (NO3), phosphate (PO4), and turbidity, collected between 2016 and 2024, across seven Italian river basins representing contrasting climatic and land-use contexts. A non-parametric analytical framework combining Kruskal–Wallis tests, aligned rank transform analyses, principal component analysis (PCA), and basin-specific Somers’ D statistics was applied to ordinal concentration data. Significant differences among basins revealed persistent spatial structuring of water-quality regimes. PCA identified two largely independent gradients: a dominant nutrient axis defined by NO3 and PO4, and a secondary turbidity axis. Urban and industrial land use aligned with higher nutrient categories, while vegetated landscapes were associated with lower concentrations. Climatic effects were basin specific. Precipitation showed opposing relationships with NO3, suggesting both mobilisation and dilution processes, whereas temperature was positively associated with PO4 in several basins and negatively related to NO3. Turbidity displayed variable links with precipitation and temperature, reflecting hydrological and seasonal controls. Overall, results indicate that land use represents the primary structural driver of nutrient variability, while climatic factors modulate basin-specific responses. The integration of citizen science observations with robust non-parametric approaches provides a scalable framework for detecting environmental drivers and supporting the targeted management of Mediterranean river systems.