Frustrative nonreward: A century of progress

Frustration is the negative emotional state that arises from the unexpected omission, reduction, delay, or inaccessibility of an appetitive reinforcer. Building upon a century of discoveries since Edward C. Tolman's pioneering 1925 work on expectancy, this review explores the multifaceted phenomenon of Frustrative Nonreward (FNR), a specific type of frustration. We synthesize psychological and biological perspectives to illustrate how FNR shapes motivation, aggression, conflict resolution, and partial reinforcement phenomena, as well as broader learning processes. By linking foundational animal studies with cutting-edge human research, we underscore the relevance of FNR to clinical conditions such as substance abuse, anxiety, and mood disorders. This integrative overview aims to deepen our understanding of how frustration dynamics operate across species and contexts, while highlighting its translational applications for future scientific and therapeutic advances.