The human propensity to kill carnivores is associated with the distribution of spotted hyaenas

Large carnivores are declining globally, making it crucial to understand the factors associated with their distribution for effective conservation. Much conservation research considers resource availability and human presence as key influences on carnivore distribution. However, the human propensity to kill carnivores, rather than mere human presence, may be associated with carnivore distribution. Here, we use the spotted hyaena ( Crocuta crocuta) as a model species because it occurs in areas with varying levels of human persecution. We evaluate how resource availability (i.e., wild ungulate prey) and livestock herding are associated with spotted hyaena distribution in two Kenyan sites with different propensities to kill carnivores. We conducted 59 calling stations to estimate spotted hyaena density and distribution, and surveyed 396 km of transects to assess the abundance of wild ungulate prey and livestock. We found that in an area with high propensity to kill carnivores, distribution was restricted and associated with wild prey and livestock herding patterns, whereas in an area with low propensity to kill carnivores, spotted hyaenas were widely distributed despite extensive wild prey and livestock herding. This study highlights the importance of considering the human propensity to kill carnivores when examining the impact of wild prey and livestock herding on carnivore distribution. Such understanding is critical to evidence-based wildlife management and to advancing coexistence across diverse social and ecological contexts