Language attrition and semi-lingualism among Liberian and Sierra Leonean refugee children: A sociolinguistic-psychological dynamic of trauma and mental health in stateless refugees in Oru, Nigeria

ABSTRACT Background Liberian and Sierra Leonean children born during and after the 2012 UNHCR cessation clause, and the subsequent closure of the Oru refugee camp in Nigeria, have grown up in conditions of protracted displacement and de facto statelessness. Many of these children have been exposed to multiple forms of trauma, including witnessing violence as well as physical, emotional, and sexual adversities within a complex and resource-constrained environment. Many also experience cultural-linguistic disruptions, including heritage-language attrition and increased reliance on host-country languages, which may be associated with challenges in identity formation and social integration. However, little is known about how trauma exposure interacts with language-related factors to influence PTSD and complex PTSD (CPTSD)-related functional impairment among stateless refugee children. Methods Using a cross-sectional design, 320 children aged 6-17 years (180 Liberian, 140 Sierra Leonean) were assessed. Trauma exposure was measured using the Child and Adolescent Trauma Screen (CATS), and PTSD/CPTSD functional impairment using the International Trauma Questionnaire-Child and Adolescent Version (ITQ-CA). Heritage- and host-language proficiency were assessed using a structured sociolinguistic questionnaire. Multivariate covariance analyses were conducted using SPSS to examine main and interaction effects. Results Multivariate analyses revealed that poorer host-language communication was associated with higher PTSD-related functional impairment (F(3, 311) = 2.85, p = .038, partial eta-squared = .027), whereas CPTSD impairment was largely unaffected. Native-language proficiency also predicted PTSD impairment (F(3, 290) = 3.44, p = .017, partial eta-squared = .034), and children with low heritage-language skills, limited parental/home-language exposure, and no Nigerian-language use showed the highest CPTSD impairment. Emotional connection to the native language provided a modest protective effect. The combined heritage- and host-language exposure was linked to lower trauma-related functional impairment, particularly for children at higher risk of CPTSD. Witnessed trauma emerged as the strongest predictor of functional impairment among refugee children, with CPTSD outcomes showing greater sensitivity (partial eta-squared = .153) than PTSD (partial eta-squared = .076). Conclusions Heritage-language competence and bilingual proficiency were associated with reduced PTSD-related functional impairment, whereas CPTSD was more strongly shaped by cumulative relational trauma. These findings highlight the potential value of interventions that support bilingual development and heritage-language preservation as pathways to resilience among stateless refugee children. Keywords: Language attrition; bilingual competence; trauma exposure; refugee children; CPTSD; PTSD; functional impairment