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This paper presents a comprehensive historical-economic study of societal economic structures during the lifetime of Siddhattha Gautama (ca. 563–483 BCE), a period in Indian history known as the Mahajanapada era. Employing a multi-source approach integrating primary textual sources (Pali Canon, Kautilya's Arthashastra), archaeological and numismatic data, and contemporary academic secondary literature, this study analyses seven principal economic dimensions: (1) land ownership and management systems, (2) taxation and royal fiscal frameworks, (3) the evolution of monetary systems from barter to punch-marked coins, (4) trade architectures and trans-regional transport networks, (5) social stratification and labour organisation, (6) economic connectivity with external civilisations (Achaemenid Persia, Central Asia, proto-maritime Southeast Asia), and (7) the institutional role of the Buddhist sangha in economic redistribution. Key findings indicate that the economy of this era is best characterised as a mixed agrarian-commercial economy — predominantly agrarian with 70–80% of the population engaged in agricultural production, yet with a dynamically growing trade and manufacturing sector supported by monetary innovations (punch-marked coins) and proto-modern financial institutions (setthi, sreni). Sharp economic inequality, as reflected in Buddhist texts, constituted a critical social backdrop for the emergence of Buddhist ethical reform. This study contributes to the understanding of the foundations of South Asian economic history and the relevance of Buddhist economic perspectives in contemporary academic discourse. Keywords: Mahajanapada, Buddhist economics, punch-marked coins, karshapana, ancient Indian taxation, Uttarapatha trade, Varna-Jati social stratification, Arthashastra, setthi, sreni