Fluorinated pesticides are a growing source of PFAS contamination in the environment: An Australian perspective on use, fate and ecotoxicity

Fluorinated pesticides, often referred to as "forever pesticides," are contaminants of emerging concern due to their persistent and bio-accumulative behaviour in the environment. Gaps in knowledge and technology options and research needs relevant to remediation of such pesticides are identified. Since 1990, the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) has approved over 90 fluorinated pesticides, many of which are highly persistent and toxic in the soil-water-plant-human-environment continuum. The persistence and lipophilicity of these compounds (pesticides) pose significant risks to environments, with long-term implications to non-targeted plants, animals and human health. Though some studies have reported that metabolites and degradation products are more toxic and persistent in the environment, limited research has been undertaken to quantify the persistence, fate and transport of parent pesticides, metabolites, precursors and intermediates. The detection of ultrashort-chain PFAS (including trifluoroacetic acid) in Australian groundwater further underscores the need for targeted research on the persistence, fate and transport of both parent pesticide compounds and their degradation products in Australian ecosystems. This manuscript collates characteristics and research undertaken on 91 fluorinated pesticides used in Australia, drawing on both local and international research. We summarise current knowledge which brings emphasis to the need for synchronised research on fate and transport of these pesticides and their metabolites, risk assessment, current food chain contamination pathways and innovation in measurement and sensing of these persistent pollutants. The development of advanced analytical methods and the expansion of research into multi-compound contamination scenarios are essential for informed regulatory decisions and effective environmental management.