Correction: Perceived cultural continuity, self-schemas, self-esteem, and psychological distress among members of ethnic groups with endangered scripts in Southwest China

A substantial body of public and mental health research documents persistent disparities in mental health outcomes between racial/ethnic minority groups and majority populations (Primm et al., 2010). Prior studies suggest that ethnic minority communities may face greater mental health-related stigma, poorer access to mental health care, and a higher risk of psychological distress (Lu et al., 2021, Eylem et al., 2020, El-Refaay et al., 2025). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the mental health of Black, Hispanic, and Asian adults in the United States deteriorated more markedly than that of White adults, with significant increases in depression and anxiety reported among these groups (Thomeer et al., 2023). Evidence from US university students similarly indicates that, compared with White peers, racial/ethnic minority students report higher levels of anxiety and depression, alongside greater unmet mental health needs (Lipson et al., 2022). Population-based surveillance data in the United States further show that, between 2018 and 2023, suicide rates increased among American Indian and Alaska Native, Black, and Hispanic populations, whereas the suicide rate among non-Hispanic White populations decreased (Stone, 2025). Taken together, these findings underscore an urgent need for inclusive, culturally grounded approaches that help vulnerable communities build psychological resources and resilience, rather than relying solely on deficit-oriented models of mental health.Within this broader agenda, growing attention has been directed to the role of cultural and identityrelated assets in supporting well-being. Perceived cultural continuity refers to an individual's subjective belief that their group's cultural identity remains stable over time and is transmitted from one generation to the next. The construct originates in research on identity continuity, which suggests that people are more likely to maintain psychological coherence when they perceive their social groups as having a consistent history, shared traditions, and enduring collective narratives (Sani et al., 2007). Building on this foundation, recent scholarship conceptualizes perceived cultural continuity as the perceived durability of core cultural elements, including language, rituals, values, and collective historical narratives (Gonzá lez et al., 2022, Cobb et al., 2025). Empirical research among Indigenous and other minority populations indicates that higher perceived cultural continuity is associated with fewer depressive symptoms, greater life satisfaction, and stronger psychological well-being (Firestone et al., 2024, Masotti et al., 2023). Qualitative evidence further suggests that sustaining cultural connectedness contributes to identity stability, social integration, and emotional health (Murrup-Stewart et al., 2021). Cross-cultural work likewise links continuity of cultural identity with greater resilience and adaptive capacity in the context of social change or marginalization, and with improved psychological wellbeing via enhanced identity coherence (Cruwys et al., 2021). These findings position perceived cultural continuity as a promising strength-based psychological resource that may be particularly relevant for communities facing cultural disruption.The theory of self-continuity posits that individuals' self-awareness relies on a coherent narrative that connects past, present, and future experiences (Jiang et al., 2020). When cultural continuity is perceived as weak or disrupted, self-narratives may become fragmented, undermining identity stability and increasing vulnerability to psychological distress (Kirmayer et al., 2014). Social identity theory further suggests that identification with social groups provides predictability, meaning, and psychological security (Turner andOakes, 1986, Stets andBurke, 2000). Consistent with these perspectives, qualitative evidence from Indigenous communities in North America suggests that cultural continuity-reflected in intergenerational knowledge transmission, cultural connectedness, and the maintenance of traditional practices-plays an important role in supporting well-being and buffering against psychological distress (Auger, 2016). Research in Indigenous and cross-cultural psychology also indicates that disruptions to cultural or collective identity are associated with heightened feelings of alienation, emotional distress, and reduced well-being (Durie, 2004, Brougham andHaar, 2013). Conceptually, perceived cultural continuity may buffer psychological distress by sustaining identity coherence and reinforcing a sense of belonging.Following evidence that cultural continuity supports well-being, attention turns to the proximal psychological mechanisms through which this resource may operate. Self-schemas are cognitive structures that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information, shaping how individuals interpret experiences in specific (including identity-relevant) domains (Evans et al., 2005, Markus et al., 1982). Self-esteem refers to the evaluative component of the self-concept and reflects an individual's overall sense of self-worth (Swann Jr et al., 2007). A substantial body of research links these constructs to mental health outcomes; for example, stable and coherent self-representations and higher global selfesteem are associated with better stress regulation and a lower risk of depressive and anxiety symptoms (Nasso et al., 2020, Hilbert et al., 2019). Evidence from Indigenous and other minority populations further suggests that cultural connectedness is related to more positive self-perceptions and better wellbeing (Holt et al., 2014, Verkuyten, 2003). In this light, self-schemas and self-esteem can be understood as internal psychological resources that translate culturally grounded continuity into resilience-related outcomes, including lower psychological distress.In southwestern China, the maintenance and transmission of minority languages and cultural practices have been profoundly shaped by a specific sociopolitical and historical context. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China and the Law on Regional National Autonomy formally guarantee ethnic minorities the right to use and develop their own languages and scripts (Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China, 1984), while simultaneously promoting Mandarin Chinese as the national common language (Lundberg, 2009, Zhou andLundberg, 2009). Within this legal framework, bilingual education has long been adopted as a primary policy instrument intended to balance minority language preservation with national language acquisition (Wang et al., 2024). However, empirical research indicates that, in recent decades, the implementation of bilingual education policies has increasingly prioritized Mandarin proficiency, reflecting broader national objectives related to educational standardization, social mobility, and economic integration (Xu andLiu, 2023, Zhang et al., 2022). National education planning documents emphasize early and sustained Mandarin instruction, often through standardized curricula that limit the functional use of minority languages in formal schooling (Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, 2010). These educational dynamics intersect with wider processes of social modernization-including urbanization, internal migration, and the expansion of national media-which collectively reshape everyday language practices and reduce opportunities for intergenerational transmission of minority languages and cultural knowledge (Lin andJackson, 2021, Yan et al., 2024). As a result, despite formal legal protections, the continuity of minority languages and cultural heritage in southwestern China has become increasingly fragile.Empirical studies document this fragility across multiple minority groups in the region. For example, the Naxi language and its traditional Dongba script have been identified as increasingly endangered, with declining everyday use among younger speakers and marked disruptions in intergenerational transmission (Huang, 2025). Broader survey evidence similarly indicates that the languages of Yi communities are experiencing reduced vitality, as younger generations increasingly rely on Mandarin Chinese in both educational and daily contexts (Yao et al., 2023). These trends are consistent with global patterns of language endangerment, whereby sociopolitical and economic pressures contribute to the rapid erosion of linguistic diversity (Bromham et al., 2022). Although research in linguistics and ethnic studies has extensively examined language vitality, script transmission, and cultural preservation, far less attention has been paid to the psychological implications of perceived cultural disruption. In particular, public health and psychological research rarely integrates minority language endangerment with perceived cultural continuity and mental health outcomes within a unified empirical framework. Consequently, little is known about how structural pressures on cultural transmission are internalized as subjective perceptions of continuity, or how such perceptions may function as psychological resources that buffer distress among minority populations in this region.Building on the theoretical and empirical literature reviewed above, the present study aims to examine the relationship between perceived cultural continuity and psychological distress among minority populations in southwestern China, with a particular focus on Tibetan, Yi, Dai, and Naxi communities. These groups were selected because each possesses a distinctive language or script that is central to cultural identity and currently faces varying degrees of endangerment. In addition, their differing population sizes and geographic distributions, ranging from the Tibetan population of over 7 million on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau to the smaller Naxi population of approximately 11,000 in Lijiang and Liangshan, provide demographic and cultural representativeness. Specifically, we test whether selfschemas and self-esteem serve as key psychological mechanisms linking perceived cultural continuity to psychological distress. By integrating perspectives from cultural psychology, social identity theory, and self-concept research, this study aims to advance understanding of how cultural resource decline and perceived disruptions in cultural continuity relate to psychological well-being, and to identify potential targets for inclusive, culturally grounded positive psychology interventions.This research primary the literature on perceived cultural continuity, which has on North American Indigenous populations, to a Chinese the cross-cultural of the between cultural and psychological research by potential such as self-schemas and that may the of cultural continuity on mental the study has implications for the of and policies promoting psychological well-being among minority populations, that supporting cultural continuity and identity maintenance may help against distress and self-concept is as the and framework. the for data and the of the data and the a theoretical and and provides for future the and theory posits that individuals maintain psychological stability and well-being by a coherent between their past, present, and future et al., in this perceived continuity can the of a stable increasing to stress and emotional et al., 2003). A sense of coherence is for life sustaining and to self-continuity may in identity and heightened emotional to identity self-continuity theory has been to collective and cultural the continuity, as in shared historical cultural and collective can individuals' feelings of stability, and psychological security (Sani et al., For of minority or culturally perceived cultural continuity as a psychological the within a stable cultural and supporting the integration of and collective narratives et al., cultural continuity can be understood as a collective of When cultural values, traditions, and historical narratives are perceived as individuals are more likely to coherence in resilience, and well-being et al., 2022). perceptions of cultural may identity coherence and vulnerability to psychological distress. In this self-continuity theory provides a for understanding how cultural continuity contributes to mental health by supporting coherent and buffering against psychological identity theory an important for understanding how individuals psychological resources from their in social groups 2016). The theory that people of their self-concept through and through the of values, and Stets andBurke, 2000). When individuals perceive a as and they are more likely to a stronger sense of and coherence in their substantial body of research that social identification contributes to psychological well-being et al., 2021). to social groups to report lower levels of psychological distress et al., greater resilience in with stress et al., and higher perceptions of et al., 2021). These to from including shared that guide access to social and a sense of continuity that individuals their experiences within a collective narrative et al., et al., this theoretical framework, perceived cultural continuity can be understood as a key to social When individuals that their cultural has stable traditions, values, and historical narratives over they are more likely to a coherent sense of et al., et al., 2024). sense of continuity their understanding of they are in to the and provides psychological security that supports mental social identity theory a for the of perceived cultural continuity on empirical evidence linking perceived cultural continuity to self-schemas is research in and identity psychology provides theoretical and empirical for this A growing body of work on ethnic and cultural identity suggests that when individuals perceive their cultural as and they are more likely to in cognitive For example, studies on cultural identity that individuals with a sense of cultural heritage and to show higher self-concept and better psychological including self-esteem and subjective well-being et al., 2024, et al., 2021). These findings that cultural that are perceived as and stable contribute to more and consistent which are key of supporting this research on cultural connectedness and identity among Indigenous and minority populations positive between in cultural practices and of psychological et al., 2023, et al., 2021). Empirical evidence indicates that with cultural traditions, cultural identity and is associated with stronger greater in and higher life et al., 2020, and and 2020). Although these studies perceived cultural continuity, they how culturally experiences the of and this the are Perceived cultural continuity is associated with research on cultural identity integration and into the relationship between perceived cultural continuity and perceive their cultural heritage as and to develop stable and positive For a study of Chinese university students that identity integration higher resilience, and et al., 2022). These findings suggest that cultural as and coherent can identity security and positive research indicates that individuals a and more positive understanding of their cultural to report higher self-worth and better psychological et al., et al., These findings suggest that a stable and coherent sense of cultural heritage may identity promoting higher studies on cultural and cultural further the psychological associated with cultural continuity et al., 2024). For example, research with Chinese has that cultural and in ethnic are associated with stronger ethnic identity and higher self-esteem and 2021). In greater cultural identity integration has also been to higher levels of selfesteem et al., Taken together, these findings that when individuals perceive their cultural heritage as and they are more likely to develop positive and a stronger sense of this the are Perceived cultural continuity is associated with research indicates that and self-schemas help individuals maintain cognitive when processing and self-concept and promoting psychological well-being et al., 2020). Specifically, empirical studies across populations have that greater self-concept is to stronger self-esteem 2020, that a cognitive of the provides a for positive studies show that stable self-representations help individuals positive when facing life supporting both emotional stability and adaptive et al., 2020). These findings collectively that self-schemas serve as a key cognitive resource that this the are Self-schemas are associated with evidence suggests that the and of individuals' self-schemas are related to their psychological well-being. on self-concept which reflects the coherence of have that individuals with higher levels of self-concept to report fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety et al., 2021, research also that self-concept increases in perceived stress and depressive symptoms over that or self-schemas can contribute to the and maintenance of psychological distress et al., 2024). work indicates that including self-concept are and associated with both depressive and anxiety symptoms in the of coherent self-representations for emotional health et al., et al., 2021). These findings collectively suggest that or self-schemas may vulnerability to psychological distress, whereas and more stable self-schemas may this the are Self-schemas are associated with psychological research has self-esteem as a key psychological resource that contributes to lower levels of psychological distress et al., 2021, et al., 2021). with higher selfesteem are better to maintain emotional stability, and adaptive whereas self-esteem increases vulnerability to emotional has been as a global evaluative of the also as a that the of on mental health across populations et al., 2020). Consistent with recent evidence from a study of Chinese that self-esteem depression and anxiety also and the of stress on psychological distress et al., and studies further that self-esteem is associated with increases in depressive symptoms and anxiety over while higher self-esteem better emotional and resilience et al., et al., 2020). research suggests that selfesteem can the of such as social or health-related on psychological well-being et al., 2021, 2024). these findings underscore role against psychological distress and its function as a stable psychological resource that supports emotional regulation and adaptive this the is Self-esteem is associated with psychological studies have that culturally grounded identity processes an important role in shaping cognitive structures 2022). identity and cultural connectedness are associated with more coherent greater and more stable which are core of adaptive self-schemas et al., 2021, et al., 2024). These findings suggest that cultural as and stable may contribute to the of more and self-schemas by a consistent for a substantial body of and research indicates that self-schemas and self-esteem are to psychological distress. or self-schemas are associated with levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms (Evans et al., whereas positive self-schemas and higher self-esteem function as psychological resources that buffer against distress et al., 2021, et al., 2021). self-esteem has been to the between cognitive structures and mental health outcomes, its role as a proximal of emotional well-being and et al., 2021). Taken together, these of evidence suggest a in which perceived cultural continuity contributes to more adaptive which in higher self-esteem and lower psychological distress. this the is Perceived cultural continuity is associated with psychological distress through the of self-schemas and The in this study were of ethnic minority groups in China traditional scripts are endangered, including the Tibetan, Yi, Dai, and Naxi ethnic to a survey in communities in the of these groups in to related to geographic and the of population for these minority and were Specifically, the and key to of the ethnic groups to the These were to other of their ethnic the were of the of the survey and the of were and were with substantial data or were for an rate of demographic of the are in of the were and were In of and for and of the were Tibetan, Yi, Dai, and a by and or For economic reported about with and economic The of The to report their demographic information, including education and economic The perceived cultural continuity, such as ethnic has on its across (Sani et al., from the by et to with such as have a sense of and Although this to self-concept is in the present study to the structural and coherence of cognitive which a core structural of In this self-schemas are as the to which are and rather than the specific of identity or construct is related identity or self-concept as on the and coherence of rather than the of specific social from the by et to for example, have to be The from the by et to psychological distress, including the the about how often were on a ranging from to were in Mandarin the linguistic and cultural diversity of the ethnic minority the were or for each group's specific cultural context. The for and are in the linguistic and a standardized were from into Mandarin Chinese by a bilingual with a in bilingual in the the Mandarin into The and were and were and by the research to and the a study with a of from the ethnic minority The of the test to overall and the internal of the were to report they or to on this were to while the of the on the data internal for Specifically, from the study were for perceived cultural continuity, for for and for psychological distress. These the use of the in the to and a structural the among perceived cultural continuity, and psychological distress. were with the the we the and the structural internal and global standardized and potential common from we the by et and compared models on their and degrees of Specifically, as a in which one common a test of whether a of for the among the as the in which their a of with degrees of whereas a of with degrees of The and significant in between the and the suggests that a the among the study is to a to the of the the in As in constructs internal with greater than consistent with and The for each construct and were from the component from to further supporting construct the for each the of its higher than its with other constructs the and of the the structural in to test the The on among the study are reported in and the standardized of the structural are in in perceived cultural continuity associated with self-schemas and self-esteem supporting and Self-schemas were associated with self-esteem supporting and associated with psychological distress supporting self-esteem associated with psychological distress supporting with and Perceived cultural continuity a significant on psychological distress through self-schemas and with an of supporting in a structural and on data from ethnic minority adults in China traditional scripts are endangered, this study provides evidence of an overall in which perceived cultural continuity is associated with lower psychological distress through self-schemas and These findings position cultural continuity as a as a strength-based psychological resource that may well-being in culturally vulnerable this study research on cultural continuity and mental health by formally a that links perceived cultural continuity to psychological distress via self-schemas and Although work has cultural continuity as a resource (Auger, Brougham and Cobb et al., of the evidence has on or By the simultaneously within a framework, the present study stronger evidence that cultural continuity is to internal psychological rather than related to (Sani et al., et al., this research self-continuity theory by its internal cognitive and evaluative mechanisms the collective theory coherence for psychological well-being et al., empirical work has often continuity as a global how in the By that perceived cultural continuity is associated with both self-schemas and and that these constructs for its relationship with psychological distress, the present study how collective continuity is in psychological self-continuity theory life narratives and suggests that continuity from cultural can be and through stable et al., 2022, et al., this study social identity theory by the of continuity as a resource that contributes to well-being. Social identity theory has on the and of identification and 1986, Stets and often the perceived durability of and historical By perceived cultural continuity as a construct and linking to and psychological distress, this study that the stability of cultural identity a psychological The findings suggest that social identification is about in the present also about cultural as enduring over time et al., et al., 2024). the theoretical of social identity theory and continuity as an of mental health together, this study contributes to identity and mental health research by an that integrates collective cultural continuity with psychological outcomes through a of among the use of structural for a of and theoretical about how and mental health are the findings position perceived cultural continuity as a or as an psychological resource shaping and emotional particularly in culturally vulnerable be that these are on overall in the and potential across ethnic or demographic were examined in the present study that perceived cultural continuity, coherent and higher self-esteem important psychological resources for ethnic minorities traditional scripts and languages are The findings have implications for and mental health with minority populations in the cultural and policy and scripts and associated cultural practices can serve as both heritage preservation and mental health For example, such as the in Lijiang and in and the Naxi Dongba while Yi language curricula in and into formal these and everyday with minority reinforcing perceptions of cultural continuity, which this study to be to more coherent higher and lower psychological distress. may bilingual supporting public in minority promoting and of and access to cultural resources in and communities. These help that scripts and languages and culturally across the of self-schemas and self-esteem that cultural be to and these findings the of to reduce psychological distress be from broader educational resource and cultural By across cultural preservation educational health and can simultaneously minority language identity and and well-being. these and to broader of and public health their and the research within a global on minority and psychological its this study has that be the use of a the among perceived cultural continuity, and psychological distress. Although the structural is the of the be or studies are to examine and were which may be to common and social to common be the of ethnic and cultural in the research may have psychological distress or cultural the the on and the and of the These approaches may have to the of or culturally the to which the can be across the Tibetan, Yi, Dai, and Naxi populations or to other minority research or to a and were the were or for the cultural and linguistic contexts of the ethnic As were in Mandarin cultural or linguistic may have been the findings be with particularly in the on survey data may limit the of research a by qualitative to and the and study that, among ethnic minorities with scripts in China, higher perceived cultural continuity is associated with more coherent higher and lower psychological distress. Self-schemas and self-esteem as key psychological linking cultural continuity to mental These findings research on cultural continuity by on minorities facing the of their own languages and and suggest that and cultural may have cultural and historical also important psychological the the and of the data that be with and future and studies are to understanding of how cultural continuity can be into mental health for minority communities.