A critical review on advanced functional bioceramics fabricated by SLA for precision implant applications

The convergence of advanced bioceramics and stereolithography (SLA)-based additive manufacturing (AM) is redefining the design and fabrication of precision biomedical implants. Conventional ceramic processing routes, while mature, are fundamentally constrained in producing patient-specific geometries, hierarchical porosity, and functionally graded architectures essential for next-generation regenerative applications. SLA, a vat-photopolymerization technique, offers unparalleled resolution, geometric freedom, and microarchitectural control, enabling the fabrication of complex bio-ceramic constructs with tunable biological and mechanical performance. This review critically examines recent advancements in SLA-based manufacturing of functional bioceramics, including hydroxyapatite, β-tricalcium phosphate, zirconia, alumina, bioglass, and composite systems. Particular emphasis is placed on the interdependence between slurry formulation (solid loading, rheology, dispersant chemistry, photo initiator systems), photopolymerization dynamics, and post-processing strategies such as debinding and sintering. The manuscript systematically correlates printing parameters—including laser power, exposure energy, scanning speed, and layer thickness—with microstructural features, porosity, dimensional shrinkage, and mechanical integrity of the final constructs. Emerging innovations such as digital light processing (DLP), two-photon polymerization (TPP), multi-material printing, and AI-assisted process monitoring are also discussed in the context of improving reproducibility and clinical scalability. Furthermore, the biomedical relevance of SLA-fabricated bioceramics is analyzed through applications in bone tissue engineering, dental restorations, and craniofacial implants, highlighting the ability to engineer bioactivity, osteoconductivity, and controlled resorption profiles through architectural design and surface functionalization. Persistent challenges—including light scattering in highly loaded slurries, defect formation during thermal processing, and the balance between porosity and mechanical strength—are critically evaluated. By consolidating material science, processing optimization, and biomedical performance considerations, this review provides a strategic roadmap for advancing SLA-enabled bioceramic technologies toward reliable, high-performance, and clinically translatable precision implant systems.