Understanding Teachers’ Acceptance and Use of AI in Secondary Inclusive Classrooms using the UTAUT Model

HRMARS - Despite substantial investments in educational technology, teacher adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) in classrooms remains disappointingly low, particularly in inclusive education contexts. This conceptual paper examines teacher acceptance of AI in secondary inclusive classrooms through the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework. A narrative review of 13 empirical and conceptual studies (2016-2025) reveals four critical gaps: (i) absence of UTAUT-based research in inclusive secondary contexts (only 3 of 13 studies employed UTAUT, none in mainstream inclusive classrooms); (ii) insufficient focus on teacher acceptance as mediating factor, with most studies emphasizing technological affordances over adoption determinants; (iii) limited Malaysian empirical work despite national policy commitments to digital transformation and inclusive education; and (iv) unclear mechanisms linking acceptance to sustained usage in complex pedagogical environments. Analysis indicates Performance Expectancy and Facilitating Conditions consistently predict adoption across contexts, but validation in inclusive secondary settings remains absent. This paper consolidates fragmented literature, identifies critical theoretical and empirical gaps, and proposes UTAUT as a framework for future research. Findings have implications for policymakers designing AI integration strategies, school leaders creating supportive conditions, and teacher educators developing professional development programs for Malaysia's 2,117 secondary inclusive education teachers serving over 95,000 students with special needs.