Ethics in Precision Neuro-Oncology: A Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence on Autonomy and Consent in AI-Guided Neurosurgery - Figure 1

A total of six empirical studies met the inclusion criteria, reflecting the entire available evidence base examining AI-related ethics in neurosurgery. Across these studies, approximately 1,400 individuals contributed data, including more than 550 neurosurgeons and surgical trainees, roughly 350 patients, and a smaller proportion of relatives and multidisciplinary surgical staff (Figure 1). Data reliability across studies is moderate, with three studies reporting response rates above 60 per cent, while the remaining studies relied on convenience sampling or email-distributed surveys with response rates between 20 and 40 per cent. Only one study included neuro-oncology patients directly interacting with AI-generated risk predictions, limiting the interpretability offindings for tumour-specific scenarios.