Urban Heat Island mitigation strategies: a comprehensive review of recent advances

• Green infrastructure reduces UHI by 1–4 °C (up to 5 °C in optimal cases), enhances biodiversity. • Cool roofs cut temperatures by 2–4 °C, save 20–40% cooling energy (building-scale, hot climates. • ML achieves high predictive accuracy (up to ∼95% for LST/hotspot mapping in specific contexts). • Low-income areas face 2–3 °C higher UHI, need targeted fixes. • Hybrid blue-green systems cool by 2–3 °C in tropical cities. Urban Heat Islands (UHIs) represent a pressing challenge in contemporary cities, exacerbating energy demand, public health risks, and climate vulnerability. This comprehensive review synthesizes recent advancements in UHI mitigation, critically evaluating a spectrum of strategies, including green infrastructure, high-albedo and reflective materials, urban design modifications, and emerging technological interventions. Quantitative evidence demonstrates that green roofs and vegetated façades typically reduce local temperatures by 1–4 °C, though evidence from arid cities indicates limited cooling or potential net warming from certain low-evapotranspiration vegetation types due to reduced albedo effects, while reflective surface enhancements may lower urban ozone concentrations by up to 7% (modeling estimates under widespread adoption in specific regions). Innovative tools, such as machine learning (ML) for predictive modeling, remote sensing for high-resolution monitoring, and geographic information systems (GIS) for spatial analysis, are highlighted for their ability to inform targeted interventions with ML achieving predictive accuracies up to ∼95% for LST/hotspot mapping in select contexts, though challenges including data limitations and generalizability remain. Case studies across Southeast Asia, Europe, and North America reveal regional differences in mitigation efficacy, emphasizing context-specific planning. Key implementation challenges—including financial costs, scalability constraints, maintenance requirements, and socio-economic inequities—are critically examined, alongside potential synergies and trade-offs between strategies. Expanded analyses incorporate megacities such as Singapore, New York, and Los Angeles, exploring novel approaches like AI-driven adaptive systems, industrial-zone vegetation restoration, and hybrid blue-green infrastructure. Comparative assessments across climatic zones elucidate strategy effectiveness, while spatial and temporal UHI trends are mapped to guide decision-making. By emphasizing integrated, equitable, and policy-informed approaches, this review provides actionable insights for urban planners and policymakers, supporting the design of sustainable, resilient cities capable of mitigating UHI impacts and enhancing urban livability in the face of global climate change.