Hydrological asymmetry and water stress in Peru: An integrated assessment of resource distribution, anthropogenic pressure, and governance gaps across three drainage basins

<ns7:p> Background Peru presents a paradigmatic case of hydrological asymmetry, where national water abundance (56,887 m <ns7:sup>3</ns7:sup> /capita/year) masks acute regional scarcity. The Pacific basin, hosting 66.4% of the population, possesses only 1.9% of renewable water resources (1,628 m <ns7:sup>3</ns7:sup> /capita/year), falling below the Falkenmark water stress threshold (1,700 m <ns7:sup>3</ns7:sup> /capita/year). Conversely, the Amazon basin holds 97.8% of resources for 30.4% of the population (183,142 m <ns7:sup>3</ns7:sup> /capita/year). This 112.5-fold asymmetry ratio exceeds comparable international cases (Egypt: 49.2; China: 8.0), yet Peru lacks systemic redistribution mechanisms. Policy and Implications Current governance frameworks under Law 29338 (2009) have failed to address territorial misalignment between supply, demand, and institutional capacity. Economic compensation mechanisms (S/205.5 million annually) paradoxically tax scarcity rather than value ecosystem services, with the Pacific basin contributing 61.7% of revenues despite extreme resource constraints. Groundwater extraction in coastal regions operates at 100% of renewable recharge limits, indicating unsustainable fossil aquifer mining. Climate projections indicate 30% runoff reduction in glacier-fed Pacific basins by 2100, exacerbating existing stress. Recommendations (1) Implement basin-scale demand management and irrigation efficiency programmes in the Pacific basin; (2) Strengthen groundwater monitoring and abstraction controls to prevent irreversible depletion; (3) Reform economic compensation mechanisms to incorporate ecosystem service valuation, redistributing revenues toward hydrologically strategic headwater regions; (4) Integrate indigenous water governance systems (comunidades campesinas, ayllus) into state planning frameworks; (5) Establish inter-basin transfer feasibility studies given the extreme asymmetry ratio. Conclusions Peru’s water challenge stems from governance asymmetry layered upon hydrological asymmetry, not absolute scarcity. Without institutional mechanisms reconciling hydrology, demography, and political economy, climatic variability will entrench coastal scarcity while Amazonian abundance remains underutilised. The integrated assessment framework presented provides transferable insights for water-rich yet spatially asymmetric nations facing increasing climatic variability. </ns7:p>