Milk handling practices and milk spoilage along the informal dairy value chain of Uganda

This study examined awareness and milk handling practices among key actors in Uganda’s informal dairy value chain, where smallholder farmers depend heavily on milk for income, nutrition, and livelihoods. Conducted between January and April 2024, the research used a cross-sectional design covering six milk sheds. A multistage cluster sampling approach yielded data from 384 farmers, 231 Milk Collection Centres (MCCs), and 70 small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Analysis involved descriptive statistics and mixed-effects logistic regression to identify factors associated with milk spoilage. Among farmers, several unhygienic behaviors were common, including long fingernails (48%), poor handwashing (34%), and improper coughing or sneezing during milking. Critical practices such as not washing udders (50.9%), using a single cloth for multiple cows (33.3%), and inadequate cleaning of containers were significantly linked to milk spoilage (p < 0.05). Key predictors included poor udder hygiene, which greatly increased spoilage risk, while proper handwashing and the use of aluminum containers reduced it. At the MCC level, risky behaviors such as body scratching and poor hygiene practices influenced milk quality. Conversely, practices like milk testing and wearing gumboots were associated with reduced spoilage. Among SMEs, roles involving milk handling, such as operators and quality controllers, were strongly linked to contamination risk. Additionally, using cloths for filtering milk significantly affected spoilage outcomes. Overall, the findings demonstrate that poor hygiene practices are the primary drivers of milk contamination across all stages of the informal dairy value chain. The study highlights the urgent need for targeted training, improved awareness, and technical support to enhance milk handling practices. Strengthening these areas is essential to reduce spoilage, improve milk quality, and safeguard public health in Uganda’s dairy sector.