Managing dry eye disease – a review of selected traditional Chinese medicine and some of their metabolites focusing on molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways

Dry eye disease (DED) is a prevalent global health issue that negatively impacts quality of life. It is also associated with the risk of corneal ulceration, scarring, and even blindness in severe cases. The complex, multifactorial pathology of DED, often conceptualized as a vicious cycle involving tear film instability, hyperosmolarity, inflammation, and apoptosis, complicates treatment. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) offers a potential therapeutic approach by targeting multiple components and pathways. This review systematically describes the mechanisms by which TCM-derived metabolites, botanical drug extracts, and TCM formulas are reported to modulate interconnected pathological processes underlying DED to establish a theoretical framework for intervention optimization. A systematic literature search was conducted on 23 April 2025, across seven electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, SinoMed, CNKI, Wanfang, and VIP) using a comprehensive strategy combining MeSH terms and keywords related to DED, TCM, and signaling pathways. DED involves alterations in several important signaling pathways associated with inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. These include PI3K/AKT, MAPK, NF-κB, NLRP3, Nrf2, SIRT, AMPK, and VEGF. TCM formulas represent a multi-target approach with an ability to simultaneously target single or multiple signaling pathways involved in DED pathology. This is proposed to counteract key interlinked processes of inflammation, apoptosis, and oxidative stress, and promotes tear film stability in cellular and animal models, thereby highlighting its pharmacological potential. The multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway approach of TCM may offer a strategic advantage for managing the multifactorial pathology of DED through the potential to simultaneously regulate multiple interactive signaling networks. This review describes the molecular mechanisms underlying these traditional treatment practices and offers a robust foundation for future clinical translation.