Public roles in mobility as a service: Governing MaaS through context-sensitive metagovernance

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) has emerged as a promising approach to integrating diverse transport modes under a unified digital platform. Yet, if poorly governed, MaaS risks exacerbating inequalities and contributing to transport gentrification. While the literature widely acknowledges the need for public sector involvement to ensure equitable outcomes, there remains limited guidance on how authorities should determine their appropriate level of engagement. This study addresses this gap by developing a decision-support tool to assess and define the role of public transport authorities (PTAs) in MaaS implementation. Drawing on an empirical classification of 74 existing MaaS and “MaaS-like” systems worldwide, the research identifies key institutional, infrastructural, and regulatory factors that shape the extent of public sector involvement. Using the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions and metagovernance theory as the conceptual foundation, these insights are operationalised into a flowchart that supports context-specific role definition. The proposed tool provides policymakers with a practical framework to align governance strategies with institutional capacity, thereby fostering equitable and sustainable MaaS development.