Simulation-based training and education in laparoscopic hepatobiliary and pancreatic surgery

Laparoscopic hepatobiliary and pancreatic (HBP) surgery necessitates mastery of intricate anatomical relationships and precision-dependent techniques. This review synthesizes advancements in simulation-based training and education modalities— three-dimensional (3D) printing, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR). 3D-printed models provide unparalleled tactile fidelity for patient-specific anatomy replication but lack dynamic physiological responses. VR enables risk-free procedural repetition and AI-driven skill optimization, yet struggles with haptic authenticity. AR bridges preoperative planning and intraoperative execution through real-time holographic navigation but faces challenges in cognitive load management. Future advancements must prioritize hybrid simulation ecosystems integrating biomechanical realism with adaptive virtual interfaces, validated transfer-to-practice metrics, and ethical frameworks for emerging technologies.