Precision Neuromodulation in Psychiatry: Focus on Temporal Interference Stimulation

Transcranial electrical stimulation with temporal interference (TES-TI) is a noninvasive technique that uses multiple high-frequency carrier currents to generate a low-frequency amplitude-modulated envelope, enabling steerable and relatively focal engagement of deep regions with reduced off-target exposure compared to conventional TES approaches. This review outlines the biophysical principles and technical implementation of TES-TI, summarizes safety and feasibility data in humans, and considers potential applications in psychiatry. TES-TI is thought to engage neural circuits by modulating physiologically relevant oscillations (TI between 0.5 and 80 Hz) and is being explored at higher frequencies (TI at ∼130 Hz), as a noninvasive approach inspired by deep brain stimulation to influence pathological network activity. Features relevant to psychiatric application are discussed alongside current evidence for engagement of key targets. TES-TI is rapidly developing, and much remains to be investigated about parameter optimization (frequency, intensity, dose, and dosing schedules) and about the strength, durability, and clinical relevance of its effects. Taken together, current findings position TES-TI as a promising but still exploratory approach for noninvasively probing and modulating deep brain circuits relevant to psychiatric disorders, while underscoring the need for further study before clinical translation.