Digital Divide and Its Impact on English Language Learning Among Rural vs. Urban ESL Learners in India

Digital tools have become more common in English language education which has created more educational disparities that already existed in India's divided educational system. The study investigates how different aspects of the digital divide which include device availability internet access and digital skills and teaching methods impact English as a Second Language (ESL) performance of rural and urban students in five Indian states (Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu). The researchers collected quantitative data from 1,240 secondary-level ESL students who were divided into rural and urban groups with 620 students from each group using standardized English tests and technology access surveys and self-efficacy inventories. The researchers collected qualitative data through focus group discussions (n = 48) and teacher interviews (n = 30). The results show evidence of significant differences between urban and rural students who demonstrated different levels of English reading comprehension skills with urban students achieving a 64.3% mean score while rural students achieved only 38.7% and students also displayed different mastery levels in listening ability and writing fluency and digital self-efficacy. The study identified three primary mediating variables which include infrastructure deficits and teacher technology competence and socio-linguistic attitudes toward English. The study ends with a framework that presents specific policy recommendations to resolve the digital English divide which adds to the existing research about educational equity and EdTech implementation in South Asia after the pandemic. Keywords: Digital Divide, English as a Second Language (ESL), Rural–Urban Educational Disparities, Digital Literacy, Educational Equity in India.