Comprehensive review of pollen morphology and climatic influences in 94 taxa of <i>Saponaria</i> , <i>Vaccaria</i> and <i>Gypsophila</i> (Caryophyllaceae) using Bayesian methods and statistical analysis

We investigated whether pollen morphology (size, shape and pore types) varies in Gypsophila, Vaccaria and Saponaria, which can be attributed to ecological adaptations. Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and statistical methods, we analysed 94 taxa to refine the taxonomy of Caryophyllaceae and assess the effects of climate on pollen characteristics. We used SEM, Bayesian inference, ANOVA and classification and regression tree (CART) to analyse pollen traits. Bayesian analysis revealed significant genus-specific differences in pollen morphology. Gypsophila showed stable pollen diameters, while Vaccaria and Saponaria showed greater variability. CART analysis revealed critical thresholds for pollen traits. Different distributions of climatic pollen types and sizes were observed, with Gypsophila showing predominantly medium-sized, subspheroidal grains. Significant correlations between pollen size and pore types were observed in all genera. The results confirm that Vaccaria is a distinct genus within Caryophyllaceae based on unique pollen traits. This study refines the taxonomic status of Gypsophila and Vaccaria and emphasises the evolutionary and ecological importance of pollen morphology in distinguishing these genera.