Brown and Lesser noddies as epidemiological reservoirs and sentinels of avian influenza virus in the South-western Indian Ocean

Avian influenza virus (AIV) epidemiology is well documented in temperate regions but remains poorly understood in isolated ecosystems like tropical oceanic islands. On these islands, seabirds nest in dense interspecific colonies where the role of different species as reservoirs and dispersers of AIV may vary greatly. Here, we examine the role of noddies ( Anous spp. ) as potential reservoirs for low pathogenic AIV and evaluate their potential as sentinel species for highly pathogenic AIV introduction on tropical oceanic islands. We analyzed blood samples from 11 seabird species across eight islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean (2015 to 2020). Noddies exhibited high, stable seroprevalence (30 to 45%), comparable to reservoir host species in temperate regions. The detection of two N7 positive noddies, sampled the same year on two distinct islands, provided direct molecular evidence that AIV actively circulates on these island colonies. While most other species showed low exposure, Bridled Terns ( Onychoprion anaethetus ) had exceptionally high seroprevalence (80%), though their reservoir status requires further investigation due to limited sampling. Given noddies consistent exposure and regional distribution, we recommend prioritizing islands with large noddy populations for AIV surveillance. Continued investigation of viral dynamics within and among islands is now called for to elucidate the ecological drivers of AIV maintenance and transmission.